which, however, owes its main importance to being the
centre of the extensive hop-trade of the neighbourhood.
The hops of Saaz are said to have been renowned for the
last five hundred years; and nearly 800 tons are annually
raised in the district to which the town gives its name.
The population of Saaz was 12,425 in 1880.
SABÆA. See YEMEN.

SABAH, or BRITISH NORTH BORNEO, is all that portion of the island of BORNEO (q.v.) which was formally recognized by the charter of incorporation granted in November 1881 as the territory of the British North Borneo Company. It has a coast-line of over 600 miles, and its area, still to a great extent unexplored,1 is estimated at 30,000 square miles. Leaving out of account the deep indentations of the coast-line, it may be said to form a pentagon, of which three sides, the north-west, north-east, and south-east, are washed by the sea, while the remaining two sides are purely conventional lines drawn from Gura Peak (3° 50′ N. lat., 116° 10' E. long.), the one almost due east to the Sibuco river, the other north-north-west to the mouth of the Sipitong on Brunei Bay. The latter separates the Company's territory from the independent sultanate of Brunei; the former is the frontier towards the Dutch possessions.

The great central feature of Sabah is the magnificent mountain of Kinabalu (compare BORNEO) or Nabalu, built up of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks to a height of 13,698 feet, and dominating the whole northern part of the island, with all its profusion of lesser mountains and hills. Kinabalu, which has the appearance of two mountains, unites towards the east by a low ridge with "Nonohan t' agaioh (the great Nonohan) and the terminal cone Tumboyonkon (Tamboyukon)." These two summits are respectively 8000 and 7000 feet high, and there are others of considerable elevation in the same neighbourhood. At some 15 or 20 miles to the north rises Mount Madalon (5000 feet), separated from Kinabalu and the other igneous and metamorphic hills by a wide valley, and consisting of those aqueous rocks, limestones, sandstones, and clays which appear to occupy the whole country to the north. Westward from Kinabalu are hills between 1000 and 2000 feet in height, and about 40 or 50 miles south-east is an important group on the north side of the Labuk valley known as the Mentapok Mountains (30008000 feet). The whole surface of the country is channelled by countless streams whose precipitous ravines, boulderstrewn rapids, and enormous beds of rolled pebbles bespeak the denuding energy of tropical rains. The coasts are generally low and flat, and to a great extent lined with casuarina trees, with here and there a stretch of mangrove, a low sandstone or limestone cliff, or a patch of that great forest which in the interior still covers so large a portion of the territory. In the low grounds along the coast and also inland among the hills are vast swamps and watery plains, which in the rainy season, when the rivers rise 20 or 30 feet above their usual level, are transformed into lakes. On the west side of Sabah the principal rivers are the Padas and the Klias, debouching opposite Labuan, but quite unexplored in their upper courses; the Papar Pappar or Pappal), which passes the village of that name and enters the sea at Papar Point; the Tampassuk, one of the first to be explored (see St John's Life in the Forests of the Far East) and remarkable for the waterfall of Pandassan or Tampassuk (1500 feet high, and thus one of the highest in the world), formed by its headwater the Kalupis. The Sekwati, a comparatively small river

But the officers of the company are very active in exploration. L. B. von Donop, F. W ti (killed 1882), W B. Pryer, Frank Batton (killed 1883), and Henry Walker are or he been among the more energetic.

| farther north, is well known for its oil-springs. At the northern extremity of the island the deep inlet of Marudu Bay receives the waters of the Marudu or Maludu river, which rises on the west side of Mount Madalon. On the east coast are the Sugut, which has its headwaters in the hills to the east of Kinabalu, and forms its delta in the neighbourhood of Torongohok or Purpura Island; the Labuk, debouching in Labuk Bay, and having its sources in the highlands about 70 miles inland; the Kinabatangan, with a longer course than any yet mentioned, rising probably between 116° and 117° E. long., and forming at its mouth a very extensive delta to the south of Sandakan Harbour; and finally the Segama, the scene of Frank Hatton's death (1883). Farther south, and inland from Darvel Bay and Sibuco (or St Lucia) Bay, there are no doubt other rivers of equal, it may be superior, importance; such, to judge by its delta, is the Kalabakong, debouching opposite Sebattik Island. Most of the rivers mentioned are navigable for steam launches of light draught, but their value is frequently impaired by a bar near the mouth. Several of the natural harbours of North Borneo, on the other hand, are at once accessible, safe, and commodious. Sandakan Harbour, on the north-east coast (5° 40′ N. lat. and 118° 10′ E. long.), runs inland some 17 miles, with a very irregular outline broken by the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only 2 miles across, is split into two channels by the little island of Balhalla. The depth in the main entrance varies from 10 to 17 fathoms, and vessels drawing 20 feet can advance half-way up the bay. Just within the mouth, on the north side, lies Elopura (see below). At Silam, on Darvel Bay, farther south, there is good anchorage. Kudat (discovered by Commander Johnstone, of H.M.S. "Egeria," in 1881) is a small but valuable harbour in Marudu Bay running inland for 2 or 3 miles, but rapidly shoaling after the first mile to 1 and 2 fathoms. It affords anchorage for vessels of any draught, but the frontage available for wharves is limited to some 1500 feet. In Gaya Bay, on the west coast, any number of vessels may lie in safety during either monsoon, the depths varying from 6 to 16 and 17 fathoms.

The climate of North Borneo is of course tropical, with a very equable temperature. The lowest minimum of the thermometer interval without rain was eight days in March. The rainfall was recorded in 1883 at Sandakan was 68° 5 in December. The greatest 34 inches (157 in 1880) at Sandakan, 129 at Papar, and 120 at Kudat. In the interior it must often be much above these figures. probable from the character of some other parts of the island; but That North Borneo should prove rich in minerals was supposed hitherto investigations have not in this matter proved very suc cessful. Coal or lignite exists, but most frequently in thin seams and insignificant pockets; the petroleum springs cannot come into any true competition with those worked elsewhere; gold has been immigration; iron-ores appear both abundant and at times producdiscovered (1885) in the Segama river and may prove a stimulus to tive; and there are indications of the existence of copper, antimony, tin, and zinc ores. As yet the wealth of the country lies in its timber and jungle products (camphor and gutta-percha in great quantities), and in its edible nuts, guano, sago, sugar, tobacco, coffee, natives in the inland districts of Mansalut, Kandassang, Koporinand gambier. Tobacco is most successfully grown by the gan, Gena-Gana, Tomborongo, Karnahan, Penusak, Tiong-Tuhan, &c.; and its cultivation has been taken up by several foreign com panies. The birds'-nest caves of Gomanton (Gormanton) near the village of Malape on the Kinabatangan yield the Government a revenue of from $6000 to $7000; and other caves of the same kind are still unworked. As the natives (Dusuns, Tagaas-Bajaus, Idaan, &c.) are scattered, mostly in small villages, throughout the unex plored as well as the explored districts, their number can only be guessed, but it is usually stated at 150,000. Since the formation of the company there has been a steady immigration, especially of Chinese from Singapore. At Elopura, the capital of the territory and of its East Coast residency, the inhabitants in 1883 numbered 3770 (1500 being Chinese and 1085 Sulus). Hong-Kong and Singa pore steamers now call regularly at Sandakan, Gaya, and Kudat. In 1885 the territory was divided into Alcock province (in the north), Keppel province (along the west coast as far north as

pepper,

Kimanis Bay), the East Coast residency (to the south-cast of
Alcock and Keppel provinces), and Dent province (to the south-west
of the East Coast residency with the coast from Kimanis Bay to
Brunci Bay).

In 1865 an American company started by Mr Torrey obtained from the sultan of Brunei certain concessions of territory in North Borneo; but this enterpriso proved a financial failure and the settlement formed on the Kimanis river broke up. The rights of the American company were bought up by the Austrian Baron von Overbeck and the English merchant Mr Alfred Dent, who further obtained from the sultan of Brunei and the sultan of Sulu a series of charters conferring on them the sovereign authority in North Borneo under the titles of inaharajah of Sabah, rajah of Gaya aud Sandakan and Data Bandahara. In spite of the opposition of Spain, which claimed that the sultan of Sulu being a Spanish vassal could not dispose of his territory without her consent, the English company organized by Mr Deut succeeded in obtaining a charter of incorporation under Act of Parliament, 1st November 1881, as the "British North Borneo Company," with right to acquire other interests in, over, or affecting the territories or property comprised in the several grants.

The text of the charter will be found in the London Gazette, 8th November 1881 and in the appendix to Mr Joseph Hatton's New Ceylon (1881); see also Frank Hatton, North Borneo, 1885; the Century Magazine, 1885; the Edinburgh Review, 1882; and the English Illustrated Magazine, 1883.

SABAS, or SABBAS, ST (Syr. Mār Sābhā), one of the early leaders of monasticism in Palestine, was a native of Cappadocia, born about 439. While still a child he accompanied his parents to Alexandria, whence in his eighteenth year, having made choice of the ascetic life, he removed to Palestine, settling at the desolate spot now occupied by the convent called by his name, about two hours from the north-west shore of the Dead Sea. As his reputation for holiness increased he was joined by others, who ultimately constituted a "laura" under the rule of St Basil. He took some part in the doctrinal controversies of the day, being a zealous defender of the decrees of Chalcedon. He died about 532 and is commemorated on 5th December. Another saint of this name, surnamed "the Goth," suffered martyrdom at the hands of Athanaric, the Visigothic king, in the reign of Valentinian; he is commemorated on 15th (or 18th) April. See also Hoffmann, Syr. Acten Persischer Märtyrer (1880), Nos. iv. and xii., for lives of two martyrs named Sabha.

SABBATH (nv), the day of sacred rest which among the

Hebrews followed six days of labour and closed the week. 1. Observance of the Sabbath.-The later Jewish Sabbath, observed in accordance with the rules of the Scribes, was a very peculiar institution, and formed one of the most marked distinctions between the Hebrews and other nations, as appears in a striking way from the fact that on this account alone the Romans found themselves compelled to exempt the Jews from all military service. The rules of the Scribes enumerated thirty-nine main kinds of work forbidden on the Sabbath, and each of these prohibitions gave rise to new subtilties. Jesus's disciples, for example, who plucked ears of corn in passing through a field on the holy day, had, according to Rabbinical casuistry, violated the third of the thirty-nine rules, which forbade harvesting; and in healing the sick Jesus Himself broke the rule that a sick man should not receive medical aid on the Sabbath unless his life was in danger. In fact, as our Lord puts it, the Rabbinical theory seemed to be that the Sabbath was not made for man but man for the Sabbath, the observance of which was so much an end in itself that the rules prescribed for it did not require to be justified by appeal to any larger principle of religion or humanity. The precepts of the law were valuable in the cyes of the Scribes because they were the seal of Jewish particularism, the barrier erected between the world at large and the exclusive community of Jehovah's grace. For this purpose the most arbitrary precepts were the most effective, and none were inore so than the complicated rules of Sabbath observance. The ideal of the Sabbath which all these rules aimed at realizing was absoluto rost

from everything that could be called work; and even the Christian Sabbatarians regard as a service to God, and exercise of those offices of humanity which the strictest therefore as specially appropriate to His day, was looked on as work. To save life was allowed, but only because the special ritual at the temple prescribed for the Sabbath danger to life "superseded the Sabbath." In like manner by the Pentateuchal law was not regarded as any part of the hallowing of the sacred day; on the contrary, the rule was that, in this regard, "Sabbath was not kept in the sanctuary." Strictly speaking, therefore, the Sabbatlı was neither a day of relief to toiling humanity nor a day appointed for public worship; the positive duties of its observance were to wear one's best clothes, eat, drink, and be glad (justified from Isa. lviii. 13). A more directly religious element, it is true, was introduced by the prac tice of attending the synagogue service; but it is to be remembered that this service was primarily regarded not as an act of worship but as a meeting for instruction in the law. So far, therefore, as the Sabbath existed for any end outside itself it was an institution to help every Jew to learn the law, and from this point of view it is regarded by Philo and Josephus, who are accustomed to seek a philosophical justification for the peculiar institutions of their religion. But this certainly was not the leading point of view with the mass of the Rabbins;1 and at any rate it is quite certain that the synagogue is a post-exilic institution, and therefore that the Sabbath in old Israel must either have been entirely different from the Sabbath of the Scribes, or else must have been a mere day of idleness and feasting, not accompanied by any properly religious observances or having any properly religious meaning. The second of these alternatives may be dismissed ideas of the old Hebrews were crude, their institutions as quite inconceivable, for, though many of the religions were never arbitrary and meaningless, and when they spoke of consecrating the Sabbath they must have had in view some religious exercise of an intelligible kind by which

they paid worship to Jehovah.

Indeed, that the old Hebrew Sabbath was quite different from the Rabbinical Sabbath is demonstrated in the trenchant criticism which Jesus directed against the latter (Matt. xii. 1-14; Mark ii. 27). The general position which He takes up, that "the Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath," is only a special application of the wider principle that the law is not an end in itself but a help towards the realization in life of the great idea! of love to God and man, which is the sum of all true religion. But Jesus further maintains that this view of the law as a whole, and the interpretation of the Sabbath law which it involves, can be historically justified from the Old Testament. And in this connexion He introduces two of the main methods to which historical criticism of the Old Testament has recurred in modern times: He appeals to the oldest history rather than to the Pentateuchal code as proving that the later conception of the law was unknown in ancient times (Matt. xii. 3, 4), and to the exceptions to the Sabbath law which the Scribes themselves allowed in the interests of worship (ver. 5) or humanity (ver. 11), as showing that the Sabbath must originally have been devoted to purposes of worship and humanity, and was not always the purposeless arbitrary thing which the schoolmen made it to be. Modern criticism of the history of Sabbath observance among the Hebrews has done nothing more than follow out these arguments in detail, and show that the result is in agreement with what is known as to the dates of the several component parts of the Pentateuch.

1 See the Mishnahi, tr. "Shabbath," and B. of Jubilees, ch. I.; and compare Schürer, Gesch. d. jüd. Volkes, ii. 357, 376, 393 sq., wheru the Rabbinical Sabbath is well explained and illustrated in detail.

Of the legal passages that speak of the Sabbath all those | Ebionites observed both the Sabbath and the Lord's day; which show affinity with the doctrine of the Scribes and this practice obtained to some extent in much wider regarding the Sabbath as an arbitrary sign between circles, for the Apostolical Constitutions recommend that Jehovah and Israel, entering into details as to particular the Sabbath shall be kept as a memorial feast of the creaacts that are forbidden, and enforcing the observance by tion as well as the Lord's day as a memorial of the resursevere penalties, so that it no longer has any religious rection. The festal character of the Sabbath was long value, but appears as a mere legal constraint-are post-exilic recognized in a modified form in the Eastern Church by a (Exod. xvi. 23-30, xxxi. 12-17, xxxv. 1-3; Num. xv. 32-36); prohibition of fasting on that day, which was also a point while the older laws only demand such cessation from daily in the Jewish Sabbath law (comp. Judith viii. 6). toil, and especially from agricultural labour, as among all On the other hand, Paul had quite distinctly laid down ancient peoples naturally accompanied a day set apart as a from the first days of Gentile Christianity that the Jewish religious festival, and in particular lay weight on the fact Sabbath was not binding on Christians (Rom. xiv. 5 sq. ; that the Sabbath is a humane institution, a holiday for the Gal. iv. 10; Col. ii. 16), and controversy with Judaizers labouring classes (Exod. xxiii. 12; Deut. v. 13-15). As it led in process of time to direct condemnation of those who stands in these ancient laws, the Sabbath is not at all the still kept the Jewish day (e.g., Co. of Laodicea, 363 A.D.). unique thing which it was made to be by the Scribes. Nay, in the Roman Church a practice of fasting on Satur"The Greeks and the barbarians," says Strabo (x. 3, 9), day as well as on Friday was current before the time of "have this in common, that they accompany their sacred Tertullian. The steps by which the practice of resting rites by a festal remission of labour." So it was in old from labour on the Lord's day instead of on the Sabbath Israel: the Sabbath was one of the stated religious feasts, was established in Christendom and received civil as well like the new moon and the three great agricultural sacri- as ecclesiastical sanction will be spoken of in SUNDAY; it is ficial celebrations (Hosea ii. 11); the new moons and the Sab- enough to observe here that this practice is naturally and baths alike called men to the sanctuary to do sacrifice (Isa. even necessarily connected with the religious observance i. 14); the remission of ordinary business belonged to both of the Lord's day as a day of worship and religious gladalike (Amos viii. 5), and for precisely the same reason. ness, and is in full accordance with the principles laid Hosea even takes it for granted that in captivity the Sab- down by Jesus in His criticism of the Sabbath of the bath will be suspended, like all the other feasts, because in Scribes. But of course the complete observance of Sunday his day a feast implied a sanctuary. rest was not generally possible to the early Christians before Christendom obtained civil recognition. For the theological discussions whether and in what sense the fourth commandment is binding on Christians, see DECALOGUE, vol. vii. p. 17.

This conception of the Sabbath, however, necessarily underwent an important modification in the 7th century B.C., when the local sanctuaries were abolished, and those sacrificial rites and feasts which in Hosea's time formed the essence of every act of religion were limited to the central altar, which most men could visit only at rare intervals. From this time forward the new moons, which till then had been at least as important as the Sabbath and were celebrated by sacrificial feasts as occasions of religious gladness, fall into insignificance, except in the conservative temple ritual. The Sabbath did not share the same fate, but with the abolition of local sacrifices it became for most Israelites an institution of humanity divorced from ritual. So it appears in the Deuteronomic decalogue, and presumably also in Jer. xvii. 19 sq. In this form the institution was able to survive the fall of the state and the temple, and the seventh day's rest was clung to in exile as one of the few outward ordinances by which the Israelite could still show his fidelity to Jehovah and mark his separation from the heathen. Hence we understand the importance attached to it in the exilic literature (Isa. lvi. 2 sq., lviii. 13), and the character of a sign between Jehovah and Israel ascribed to it in the post-exilic law. This attachment to the Sabbath, beautiful and touching so long as it was a spontaneous expression of continual devotion to Jehovah, acquired a less pleasing charac er when, after the exile, it came to be enforced by the civil arm (Neh. xiii.), and when the later law even declared Sabbath-breaking a capital offence. But it is just to remember that without the stern discipline of the law the community of the second temple could hardly have escaped dissolution, and that Judaism alone preserved for Christianity the hard-won achievements of the prophets.

The Sabbath exercised a twofold influence on the early Christian church. On the one hand, the weekly celebration of the resurrection on the Lord's day could not have arisen except in a circle that already knew the week as a sacred division of time; and, moreover, the manner in which the Lord's day was observed was directly influenced by the synagogue service. On the other hand, the Jewish Christians continued to keep the Sabbath, like other points of the old law. Eusebius (H. E., iii. 27) remarks that the

2. Origin of the Sabbath.-As the Sabbath was originally a religious feast, the question of the origin of the Sabbath resolves itself into an inquiry why and in what circle a festal cycle of seven days was first established. In Gen. ii. 1-3 and in Exod. xx. 11 the Sabbath is declared to be a memorial of the completion of the work of creation in six days. But it appears certain that the decalogue as it lay before the Deuteronomist did not contain any allusion to the creation (see DECALOGUE, vol. vii. p. 16), and it is generally believed that this reference was added by the same post-exilic hand that wrote Gen. i. 1-ii. 4a. The older account of the creation in Gen. ii. 4b sq. does not recognize the hexaemeron, and it is even doubtful whether the original sketch of Gen i. distributed creation over six days. The connexion, therefore, between the seven days' week and the work of creation is now generally recognized as secondary. The week and the Sabbath were already known to the writer of Gen. i., and he used them to give the framework for his picture of the creation, which in the nature of things could not be literal and required some framework. At the same time, there was a peculiar appropriateness in associating the Sabbath with the doctrine that Jehovah is the Creator of all things; for we see from Isa. xl.-lxvi. that this doctrine was a mainstay of Jewish faith in those very days of exile which gave the Sabbath a new importance for the faithful.

But, if the week as a religious cycle is older than the idea of the week of creation, we cannot hope to find more than probable evidence of the origin of the Sabbath. At the time of the exile the Sabbath was, already an institution peculiarly Jewish, otherwise it could not have served as a mark of distinction from heathenism. This, however, does not necessarily imply that in its origin it was specifically Hebrew, but only that it had acquired distinguishing features of a marked kind. What is certain is that the origin of the Sabbath must be sought within a circle that used the week as a division of time. Here again we must distinguish between the week as

such and the astrological week, i.e., the week in which |
the seven days are named each after the planet which is
held to preside over its first hour. If the day is divided
into twenty-four hours and the planets preside in turn
over each hour of the week in the order of their periodic
times (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury,
Moon), we get the order of days of the week with which
we are familiar. For, if the Sun presides over the first
hour of Sunday, and therefore also over the eighth, the
fifteenth, and the twenty-second, Venus will have the
twenty-third hour, Mercury the twenty-fourth, and the
Moon, as the third in order from the sun, will preside
over the first hour of Monday. Mars, again, as third
from the Moon, will preside over Tuesday (Dies Martis,
Mardi), and so forth. This astrological week became
very current in the Roman empire, but was still a novelty
in the time of Dio Cassius (xxxvii. 18). This writer
believed that it came from Egypt; but the old Egyptians
had a week of ten, not of seven days, and the original
home of astrology and of the division of the day into
twenty-four hours is Chaldæa. It is plain, however,
that there is a long step between the astrological assigna-
tion of each hour of the week to a planet and the recog-
nition of the week as an ordinary division of time by
people at large. Astrology is in its nature an occult
science, and there is not the slightest trace of a day of
twenty-four hours among the ancient Hebrews, who had
the week and the Sabbath long before they had any
acquaintance with the planetary science of the Babylonian
priests. Moreover, it is quite clear from extant remains
of Assyrian calendars that our astrological week did not
prevail in civil life even among the Babylonians and
Assyrians: they did not dedicate each day in turn to its
astrological planet. These facts make it safe to reject
one often-repeated explanation of the Sabbath, viz., that
it was in its origin what it is in the astrological week, the
day sacred to Saturn, and that its observance is to be
derived from an ancient Hebrew worship of that planet.
In truth there is no evidence of the worship of Saturn
among the oldest Hebrews; Amos v. 26, where Chiun
(Kaiwan) is taken by many to mean Saturn, is of uncer-
tain interpretation, and, when the tenses are rightly
rendered, refers not to idolatry of the Israelites in the
wilderness but to the time of the prophet.

The week, however, is found in various parts of the world in a form that has nothing to do with astrology or the seven planets, and with such a distribution as to make it pretty certain that it had no artificial origin, but suggested itself independently, and for natural reasons, to different races. In fact the four quarters of the moon supply an obvious division of the month; and, wherever new moon and full moon are religious occasions, we get in the most natural way a sacred cycle of fourteen or fifteen days, of which the week of seven or eight days (determined by half moon) is the half. Thus the old Hindus chose the new and the full moon as days of sacrifice; the eve of the sacrifice was called upavasatha, and in Buddhism the same word (uposatha) has come to denote a Sabbath observed on the full moon, on the day when there is no moon, and on the two days which are eighth from the full and the new moon respectively, with fasting and other religious exercises.1

From this point of view it is most significant that in the older parts of the Hebrew Scriptures the new moon and the Sabbath are almost invariably mentioned together. The month is beyond question an old sacred division of time common to all the Semites; even the Arabs, who received the week at quito a late period from the Syrians 1 Childers, Pali Dict., p. 535; Kern, Buddhismus (Ger. tr.), p. 8: Mahavagga, ii. 1, 1 (Eng. tr., i. 239, 291).

(Bîrûnî, Chronology, Eng. tr., p. 58), greeted the new
moon with religious acclamations. And this must have
been an old Semitic usage, for the word which properly
means to greet the new moon" (ahalla) is, as Lagarde
(Orientalia, ii. 19) has shown, etymologically connected
with the Hebrew words used of any festal joy. Among
the Hebrews, or rather perhaps among the Canaanites,
whose speech they borrowed, the joy at the new moon be
came the type of religious festivity in general. Nor are
other traces wanting of the connexion of sacrificial occa-
sions-i.e., religious feasts-with the phases of the moon
among the Semites. The Harranians had four sacrificial
days in every month, and of these two at least were deter-
mined by the conjunction and opposition of the moon.2
That full moon as well as new moon had a religious
significance among the ancient Hebrews seems to follow
from the fact that, when the great agricultural feasts were
fixed to set days, the full moon was chosen. In older
times these feast-days appear to have been Sabbaths (Lev.
xxiii. 11; comp. PASSOVER, vol. xviii. p. 344).
A week determined by the phases of the moon has an
average length of 29÷4-7 days, i.e., three weeks out
of eight would have eight days. But there seems to be in
1 Sam. xx. 27, compared with vv. 18, 24, an indication that
in old times the feast of the new moon lasted two days—a
very natural institution, since it appears that the feast was
fixed in advance, while the Hebrews of Saul's time cannot
have been good enough astronomers to know beforehand on
which of two successive days the new moon would actually
be observed. In that case a week of seven working days
would occur only once in two months. We cannot tell
when the Sabbath became dissociated from the month;
but the change seems to have been made before the Book
of the Covenant, which already regards the Sabbath simply
as an institution of humanity and ignores the new moon.
In both points it is followed by Deuteronomy.
The Babylonian and Assyrian Sabbath.-The word "Sabbath'
claimed as Assyrian on the basis of a textual emendation made by
(sabattuv), with the explanation "day of rest of the heart," is
F. Delitzsch in II. Rawl., 32, 16. The value of this isolated and
uncertain testimony cannot be placed very high, and it seems to
prove too much, for it is practically certain that the Babylonians
at the time of the Hebrew exile cannot have had a Sabbath exactly
corresponding in conception to what the Hebrew Sabbath had be-
come under very special historical circumstances. What we do
know from a calendar of the intercalary month Elul II. is that
in that month the 7th, 14th, 19th, 21st, and 28th days had a pecu-

liar character, and that certain acts were forbidden on them to the

king and others. There is the greatest uncertainty as to the details (coin pare the very divergent renderings in Records of the Past, vii. 160 sq.; Schrader, K.A. T., 2d ed., p. 19; Lotz, Qu. de historia Sabbati, 39 sq.); but these days, which are taken to be Assyrian Sabbaths, are certainly not "days of rest of the heart," and to all I, therefore, they are "Assyrian Sabbaths" at all, they are exactly appearance are unlucky days, and expressly designated as such." opposite in character to the Hebrew Sabbath, which Hosea describes as a day of gladness, and which never ceased to be a day of feasting and good cheer.

Etymology of the word "Sabbath."-The grammatical inflexions of the word "Sabbath" show that it is a feminine form, properly shabbat-t for shabbat-t, from nav II. The root has nothing to do with resting in the sense of enjoying repose; in transitive forms and applications it means to "sever," to "put an end to," and intranmatical form of shabbath suggests a transitive sense, "the divider," sitively it means to "desist," to "come to an end." The gramand apparently indicates the Sabbath as dividing the month. It may mean the day which puts a stop to the week's work, but this is less likely. It certainly cannot be translated "the day of rest.' Sabbatical Year.-The Jews under the second temple observed every seventh year as a Sabbath according to the (post-exilic) láw of Lev. xxv. 1-7. It was a year in which all agriculture was re2 The others according to the Führist, 319, 14-are the 17th. and the 28th. 8 It appears from Judith viii. 6 that even in later times there were two days at the new moon on which it was improper to fast.

Lotz says they are lucky days; but the expression which he renders "dies faustus" is applied to every day in the calendar. The rest of his book does not rise above this example of acumen.

become official there. At the same time Rome and most
of the other churches of the West still retained a certain
leaning towards Modalistic monarchianism. This appears,
on the one hand, in the use of expressions having a
Modalistic ring about them-see especially the poems of
Commodian, written about the time of Valerian-and, on
the other hand, in the rejection of the doctrine that the
Son is subordinate to the Father and is a creature (wit-in Herzog-Plitt, Encykl. f. Proč. Theol., x. 199 sq.).
ress the controversy between Dionysius of Alexandria
and Dionysius of Rome), as well as in the readiness of the
West to accept the formula of Athanasius, that the Father
and the Son are one and the same in substance (óμoovσio1).

(Philos., bk. ix.), Epiphanius (Her., Ixii.), and Dionys. Alex.

The sources of our knowledge of Sabellianism are Hippolytus

(Epp.); also various passages in Athanasius and the other fathers of the 4th century. For modern discussions of the subject seo Schleiermacher (Theol. Ztschr., 1822, hft. 3), Lange (Ztschr. f. hist. Theol., 1832, ii. 2), Döllinger (Hippolyt u. Kallist, 1858), Zahn (Marcell v. Ancyra, 1867), and Harnack (s.v. "Monarchianismus,” (A. HA.)

1 In the 18th century there was discovered in one of the catacombs of Rome an inscription containing the words "qui et Filius diceris et Pater inveniris." This can only have come from a Sabellian.

2 Whether Sabellius himself ever visited the East