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made in 1888, was expended in cutting a straight outlet from the Chicago river into the lake. The available depth was only 2 feet, but since then the harbour accommodation has been extended, by means of piers, dredging, and a breakwater, to accommodate vessels of 14 feet draught.

The harbour works at Chicago, as well as at other lake and river ports, are constructed simply of cribs or boxes, composed of logs 12 by 12 inches, filled with stone, and joined to each other, after they have finally settled down, by a continuous timber superstructure raised a few feet above the level of the water. On this plan breakwaters, piers at the mouths of rivers, and wharves have been built within the last sixty years at the most important points along the shores of the St Lawrence lakes, as well as at most of the river harbours communicating with the Atlantic; and experience has proved that no cheaper and better system could have been devised

for such localities.

St Clair The St Lawrence leaves Lake Huron by the St Clair river aud river at Sarnia, and after a course of 33 miles enters Lake St Clair, 25 miles long, and terminating at the head of the Detroit river, near the city of Detroit in Michigan. Eighteen miles farther on the St Lawrence, with a descent of 11 feet, enters Lake Erie. The navigation through the St Clair river is easy throughout, but in Lake St Clair there are extensive sandbanks covered with a depth of water varying from 6 to 10 feet. Previous to 1858 much inconvenience was experienced in navigating the lake owing to its insufficient depth; but at the end of that year the Governments of the United States and Canada dredged a canal through the bed of the lake, which is of soft material, to a minimum depth of 12 feet, with a width of 300 feet. This channel has since been deepened to 16 feet over a width of 200 feet, and works are now in progress to deepen the rocky shoal called the "Lime-Kiln Crossing" in the Detroit river to 18 feet, to enable vessels drawing 15 feet to pass with safety from lake to lake in stormy weather.

Lake Erie.

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The peculiar features of Lake Erie are its shallowness and the clayey nature of its shores, which are generally low. The south shore is bordered by an elevated plateau, through which the rivers, which are without importance as regards Lake Erie, have cut deep channels. The mean depth of the lake is only 90 feet and its maximum depth 204. Owing to its shallowness it is easily disturbed by the wind, and is therefore the most dangerous to navigate of all the great lakes. Its length is 250 miles and its greatest breadth 60. The area of the basin of Lake Erie is 39,680 square miles, including 10,000 square miles, the area of the lake. Its waters are 564 feet above the sea and 330 above Lake Ontario. The extreme difference observed in the level of the lake between 1819 and 1838 was 5 feet 2 inches, but the average annual rise and fall (taken on a mean of twelve years) is only 1 foot 1 inches. The mean annual rainfall is 34 inches. The navigation of Lake Erie usually opens about the middle of April and closes early in December. Besides the Erie and the Welland Canals, the lake has two other great canal systems on its south shore,the Ohio and Erie Canal, from Cleveland to Portsmouth, and the Miami and Erie Canal, from Toledo to Cincinnati.

Buffalo (population, 171,500 in 1883) is situated at the northeast angle of Lake Erie, and is therefore much exposed to the violence of south-west winds, in which direction the lake has a "fetch" of 200 miles. Thus more than ordinary care has been taken to provide safe harbour accommodation for the large fleets of vessels constantly arriving at Buffalo from the upper lakes. The Buffalo river, which has been made navigable for more than a mile, is protected at its mouth by a breakwater, 4000 feet long, built at about half a mile from the shore. The harbour thus formed allows of the entrance of vessels of 17 feet draught as against 13 in 1853. Not only is the port situated at the head of the Erie Canal and within an hour's sail of the Welland Canal, but it is the western terminus of the New York Central, Erie, and several other railways. The possession of these exceptional advantages has constituted Buffalo the great commercial centre of the inland seas of North America. For the six years ending 1883 the yearly average shipments of wheat and corn received by lake at Buffalo, by the Erie

Canal, and by rail from elevators was 5,555,000 quarters by canal and 2,320,000 by rail, or 70-20 and 29.80 per cent. respectively. There are 38 elevators in the city, comprising storage, transfer, and floating elevators, with a combined storage capacity of 1,125,000 quarters and a daily transfer capacity of 333,000 quarters. During the ten years ending 1883 the annual average number of lake vessels arriving and departing from Buffalo Creek numbered 7438, the aggregate tonnage was 4,165,098 tons, and the average size of craft 560 tons.

In 1883 the enrolled tonnage of the United States vessels for the northern lakes, and the enrolled registered tonnage of steam and sailing vessels in the province of Ontario, including tugs and barges on the Ottawa river and barges at Kingston, were as follows (Table II.):

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Freight propellers are now rapidly doing away with sailing vessels, or causing them to be converted into barges or consorts. The rapid increase in their tonnage capacity has been remarkable. In 1841 there was only 1 freight propeller with a tonnage of 128 tons; in 1850 there were 50 with an average of 215 tons, in 1860 there were 197 with an average of 340 tons, and in 1880 there were 202 with an average of 689 tons.

The Erie Canal connects Lake Erie with the Hudson river at Erie Troy and Albany and with Lake Ontario at Oswego. The move-Canal ment of freight of all kinds by the canal was 3,602,535 tons in 1873, and 3,587,102 in 1883, and the average annual movement from 1874 to 1883 was 3,447,464 tons. This canal was constructed in 1825 by the State of New York, for the passage of vessels of 60 tons; but by the year 1862 it was sufficiently enlarged to allow of the passage of vessels of 240 tons. The dimensions and capacity of the canal and its two principal feeders are given in Table IIL :—

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The cost of construction, maintenance, and management of the 455
miles of canal up to 30th September 1873 amounted to £17,460,000.
A project has for some time been under serious consideration for
the enlargement of one tier of the present locks and the deepening
of the canal so that between Buffalo and Albany there would no-
is about £1,600,000.
where be a less depth than 8 feet. The estimated cost of this work

The Welland Canal flanks the Niagara river and is 27 miles in Welland length from Port Colborne on Lake Erie to Port Dalhousie on Lake Canal. Ontario. It was opened in 1833 for the navigation of small vessels and was first enlarged in 1844. Vessels, however, continued to increase in size until in 1860 there were 341 with an aggregate tonnage of 143,918 tons which were unable to pass through the enlarged canal. In 1870 the number that could not pass had increased to 384, with an aggregate tonnage of 194,685 tons; in 1880 to 460, with an aggregate tonnage of 287,342 tons; and in 1883 (notwithstanding the completion of the second enlargement in 1882) to 557, with an aggregate tonnage of 398,808 tons. The cost of the canal including its maintenance up to 30th June 1883 was $20,859,605. Its dimensions are now as follows:-number of lift locks, 25; dimensions, 270 by 45 feet; total rise of lockage, 3261 feet; depth of water on sills, 12 feet. The movement of freight of all kinds by the canal was 1,330,629 tons in 1873 and 827,196 in 1883, and the average annual movement for the decade ending 1883 was 986,441 tons. This serious falling off in traffic is partly due to the numerous competitors by lake and rail which have sprung up, during the last ten years for the transportation of products to the east, but principally to the deepening of the channels and harbours of the upper lakes, a work that has encouraged the construction of

River

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a class of vessels that cannot make use of the Welland Canal even after its last enlargement. In order to meet this strong competition the Government of the Dominion of Canada was called upon still further to deepen the canal so as to allow the passage of the largest existing lake vessels without lightering; and in 1886 contracts were concluded for deepening it to 14 feet.

The Niagara river flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario Niagara. in a northerly direction. Its width between Bufalo and Fort Erie (the site of the international iron-trussed railway bridge; see sketch map of Niagara river in vol. xvii. p. 472) is 1900 feet and its greatest depth 48. At this point the normal current is 5 miles an hour,-the extreme variation in the level of the river when uninfluenced by the wind being only 2 feet. During south-west gales, however, the water occasionally rises as much as 4 feet in a few hours, and at such times the current attains a maximum velocity of 12 miles an hour. Two miles below the bridge the river is divided into two arms by Grand Island, at the foot of which they reunite and spread over a width of 2 or 3 miles. The river then becomes studded with islands, until about 16 miles from Lake Erie, after a total fall of 20 feet, it narrows again and begins to. descend with great velocity. This is the commencement of the rapids, which continue for about a mile with a total descent of 52 feet. The rapids terminate in the great cataract of Niagara, the fall of which on the American side is 164 feet and on the Canadian side 150 feet. The falls are divided by Goat Island, which rises 40 feet above the water and extends to the very verge of the precipice, where the total width of the river, including the island, is 4750 feet. The Horse-Shoe Fall on the Canadian shore is 2000 feet long, and the depth of water on the crest of the fall is about 20 feet. The American fall is only one-half that length, and discharges less than one-fourth the volume of the Horse-Shoe Fall. United, they discharge nearly 400,000 cubic feet per second or 41,000,000 tons per hour; The upper layer of the escarpment down which this enormous mass of water leaps consists of hard limestone about 90 feet thick, beneath which lie soft shales of equal thickness, which are continually being undermined by the action of the spray, driven violently by gusts of wind against the base of the precipice. In consequence of this action and that of the frost, portions of the incumbent' rock overhang 40 feet, and often, when unsupported, tumble down, so that the falls do not remain absolutely stationary in the same spot. Sir C. Lyell in 1842 came to the conclusion that the cataract was receding at an average rate of 1 foot annually, "in which case it would have required 35,000 years for the retreat of the falls from the escarpment at Queenstown to their present site." From the foot of the falls to Queenstown, a distance of about 7 miles, the river descends 104 feet through a gorge from 200 to 300 feet deep and from 600 to 1200 feet wide. Midway in this deep defile the turbulent waters strike against the cliff on the Canadian side with great violence, and, being thus deflected from west to north, give rise to the dangerous eddy called the "Whirlpool." The escarpments end abruptly at Queenstown, where the waters suddenly expand to a great width, and finally, 7 miles farther on, tranquilly flow into Lake Ontario.

About one-third of a mile below the cataract a carriageroad suspension bridge (built in 1869 by Mr Samuel Keefer) spans the river with a single opening of 1190 feet, at a height of 190 feet above the water; and 2 miles lower down Roebling's celebrated railway and road suspension bridge (completed in 1855) crosses the river at a height of 245 feet above the water with a single span of 800 feet. In November 1883 a double-track railway three-span iron and steel cantilever bridge, situated about 100 yards above Roebling's bridge. was completed for the

New York Central and Michigan Central Railways. The total length of the bridge is 910 feet and that of the centre span 470 feet. The height from the water to the level of the rails is 239 feet.

Lake Ontario is the easternmost and smallest of the Lake great lakes of the St Lawrence system. Its basin drains Ontario. 29,760 square miles, including the lake surface of 6700 square miles. The length of the lake is 190 miles, its greatest width 52 miles, its mean depth 412 feet, and its elevation above the sea 234 feet. It never freezes except .near the shore. Its chief tributaries are the Trent on the north shore and the Genesee and the Oswego on the south shore, and its chief ports, Toronto, the capital of Ontario, 32 miles north of Port Dalhousie, at the foot of the Welland Canal; Oswego, at the south-east angle of the lake; and Kingston, at its north-east extremity, 52 miles north of Oswego.

Trent river navigation is a term applied to a series of reaches which do not, however, form a connected system of navigation, and The series is composed of a chain'of lakes and rivers extending from which in their present condition are efficient only for local use. Trenton, at the mouth of the Trent on the Bay of Quinté, north shore of Lake Ontario, to Lake Huron. The new works (which will have locks 134 feet by 33 feet with a depth of 5 feet on sill) boro, and Balsam Lake, the headwaters of the system, opening up will give communication between Lakefield, 9 miles from Peter a total of about 150 miles of direct and lateral navigation.

The port of Oswego has been in direct communication with the Hudson river since 1822, by means of a canal of small capacity as far as Syracuse, and thence by the Erie Canal to Troy and Albany. It is now proposed by the United States Government to enlarge this route under tlie name of the Oneida Ship Canal, so that vessels arriving from the Welland Canal with cargoes of 50,000 bushels of wheat may be able to tranship them at Oswego into steam barges holding 25,000 bushels, or into barges to be towed with a capacity of 28,000 bushels. The length of the proposed route by the Oneida Lake and Durhamville is 200 miles, with a lockage of 609 feet; and its estimated cost, including 20 ascending and 47 descending locks (each 170 by 28 by 8 feet), is $25,218,857. The Government of the Dominion of Canada has also under consideration the following projects to connect the St Lawrence with Lake Huron :-(1) the Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal, from Montreal, by the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, to French river; (2) the Toronto and Georgian Bay Canal, by way of Lake Simcoe; (3) the Hur-Ontario Canal, from Hamilton to Lake Huron, near Port Franks. of three-fourths of the grain that arrives from the Kingston, being the port of transhipment for Montreal Kingston upper lakes, is a place of some commercial importance. Formerly real. lake vessels were sent from Chicago to Montreal through But it the St Lawrence canals without breaking bulk. was afterwards found cheaper to transfer grain at Kingston, and to send it down the St Lawrence in barges, the cost of such transfer being only half a cent per bushel. Kingston is also at the south terminus of the Rideau Canal, which connects it with the city of Ottawa.

This canal, 126 miles long, has 33 locks ascending 292 feet and 14 descending 165, and admits vessels 180 by 30 feet drawing 4 feet of water. It was constructed in 1826-32 by the British Government at a cost of about $4,000,000, chiefly with a view to the defence of the province, but since the opening of the St Lawrence canals it has become of comparatively little importance as a means of transport, the distance from Montreal to Kingston being 68 miles longer by the Rideau and Ottawa Canals than by the St Lawrence.

Almost immediately after leaving Kingston, that part of the St Lawrence commences which is called the Lake of a Thousand Islands. In reality they number 1692, and extend for 40 miles below Lake Ontario. At this point the Laurentian rocks break through the Silurian, and reach across the St Lawrence, in this belt of islands, to unite with the Laurentian Adirondack region in the State of New York. Near Prescott, a town on the Canadian side about 60 miles below Kingston, begins the chain of the St Lawrence canals proper, which were constructed to overcome a total rise of 206 feet,-the number of locks being 27 and the total length of the six canals 43 miles.

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The canals are called, in the order of their descent, the "Galops," "Rapid Plat," and "Farran's Point," with an aggregate length of

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12 miles (the three forming with their intervening 15 miles of river navigation what-is called the Williamsburg Canals), the "Cornwall," 11 miles long, the "Beauharnois," connecting Lakes St Louis and St Francis, 11 miles long, and the "Lachine," 8 miles long. The locks of the first five canals, constructed in 1845-48, are 200 feet in length, with a depth of from 7 to 10 feet on their sills at exceptionally low water, and, with the exception of the "Galops" and "Cornwall," which are 55 feet wide, their width is 45 feet. The Lachine Canal was begun in 1821 and completed in 1824 for the navigation of vessels drawing 44 feet, but it was not until 1843-48 that it was widened and deepened to the dimensions of the upper canals. It has lately been still further enlarged, and is already provided with locks 270 by 40 feet, with an available depth of 14 feet. The canal was closed on 1st December 1882 and opened on 1st May 1883,-the navigation having been The interrupted as usual by the ice for a period of five months. cost to the provincial and Dominion Government of the six canals, including their maintenance to 30th June 1883, was $14,454,508. The five upper canals are now being enlarged to the dimensions of the improved Lachine Canal.

Near Cornwall, on the left bank, 50 miles below Prescott, the intersection of the parallel of 45° determines the point where the St Lawrence and its lakes (Lake Michigan excepted), having been an international boundary from the head of Lake Superior, become exclusively Canadian. Immediately below Cornwall the river flows through Lake St Francis, which has a length of about 30 miles and a width varying from 2 to 5 miles. In the long reach of the river below the lake it has been calculated by the Canadian canal commissioners that the mean volume of water discharged is 510,000 cubic feet per second. Ten miles below the foot of Lake St Francis, near the head of the island of Montreal, the river flows into Lake St Louis, which receives the main body of the Ottawa river, a small fraction of whose waters is delivered into the St Lawrence at the foot of the island 35 miles lower down the stream.

The Ottawa river, which is 600 miles long, drains 60,000 square miles, and contributes a volume of 90,000 cubic feet per second to the St Lawrence, of which it is the largest tributary. Between Lake St Louis and the city of Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, and perhaps the largest market for lumber in the world, the St Anne's lock (23 miles from Montreal), Carillon Canal, Chute-àBlondeau Canal, and the Grenville Canal (631⁄2 miles from Montreal) have been constructed, and are now enlarged to 200 by 45 feet, with a depth of 9 feet on their sills, except the Chute-à-Blondeau Canal, whose single lock has still its original dimensions of 130 by 32 feet with only 6 feet on its sill. The total lockage between the Lachine Canal and Kingston by the Rideau Canal (the entrance to which is 119 miles from Montreal) is 509 feet (345 rise, 164 fall) and the number of locks is 55. On the upper Ottawa-the Culbute Canal and L'Islet rapids-there are two locks 200 feet long, 45 wide, and 6 deep, with a lift of 18 to 20 feet. The cost of the Ottawa canals, including the Rideau Canal, to 30th June 1883 was $9,126,125.

After leaving Lake St Louis the St Lawrence dashes wildly down the Lachine rapids, a descent of 42 feet in 2 miles, and 8 miles farther on, after passing beneath the 25 spans of the Victoria Tubular Railway Bridge, which has a length of 9144 feet, reaches the quays of Montreal, 198 miles below Kingston. In the beginning of the present century vessels of over 300 tons burden were unable to reach the city, but by deepening Lake St Peter and the shoals in the St Lawrence between Quebec and Montreal the latter has been made accessible to vessels of 4000 tons burden and drawing 25 feet of water. Work is being steadily continued and will not cease until a depth of 27 feet is attained, so as to enable the largest vessels afloat to reach the long stretch of new deep-water quays. In ⚫1883 the tonnage of the 660 sea-going vessels which visited

the port was 664,263 tons, of which 605,805 belonged to 264 steamships, so that only 9 per cent. of the freight arriving from sea was carried in sailing vessels. The St Lawrence has an average width of 12 miles for 46 miles from Montreal down to Sorel on the right bank, at which point it is joined by the Richelieu river, a tributary that drains 9000 square miles.

The Richelieu river is made navigable from its mouth to Lake Richelieu Champlain, a distance of 81 miles to the United States boundary, river and canal. by a dam and lock at St Ours, half a mile long (14 miles above Sorel), and a canal of 12 miles in length 32 miles farther up the river, known as the Chambly Canal. These give a navigable depth of 7 feet, allowing vessels 114 feet long, 23 broad, and drawing 6 feet of water, to pass through the canal from end to end. The cost of the works to 30th June 1867 was $756,249. The total length of navigation between Montreal and New York by the Richelieu Canal, Lake Champlain, the Champlain and Erie Canal, Albany, and the Hudson river is 456 miles. The Richelieu Canal, which already carries a freight of 350,000 tons annually, is to be enlarged, and a canal is to be constructed from Lake St Louis at Chaughnawaga, above Lachine, to St Johns on the Richelieu river, in connexion with the Chambly Canal, to connect the St Lawrence with Lake Champlain by a new channel, which it is proposed should have the same dimensions as the improved Welland Canal. The cost of the proposed Chaughnawaga Canal, which would have a length of 32 miles and a lockage of only 29 feet, is estimated at $5,500,000.

Immediately below Sorel the river flows into Lake St Sorel to Peter, 20 miles in length by 9 in width, through which Quebec. prior to 1851 no vessel drawing more than 11 feet could

pass.
Since then a cutting 300 feet wide has been dredged
to a depth of 25 feet. At Three Rivers, 86 miles below
Montreal, the St Lawrence first meets the tide and receives
from the north the waters from the St Maurice, which drains
about 16,000 square miles. Nearing Quebec, the river,
which maintains an average width of 1 miles from Lake
St Peter, narrows into a width of three-quarters of a mile
at Cape Diamond, on the left bank, 160 miles below Mont-
real. The depth here is 128 feet and the rise of spring
tides 18 feet.

The lower town of Quebec, which has extensive harbour accommodation, is built on reclaimed land around the base of the cape, one of its sides being washed by the river St Charles, which here flows into the St Lawrence. At the mouth of the St Charles the Princess Louise embankment, 4000 feet long by 300 wide, encloses a tidal area of 20 acres, having 24 feet of depth at low water. Connected with it is a wet dock, which is to have a permanent depth of 27 feet with an area of 40 acres. On the opposite side, at Pointe Levis, the Lorne graving-dock is nearly completed. Its dimensions are 500 feet in length, 100 in width, and 25 feet depth of water on its sill. During the year ending June 1884 the departures for sea of vessels from Quebec were 698, with an aggregate burthen of 686,790 tons.

The Canadian Government have sanctioned the proposal to construct a railway bridge across the St Lawrence within a few miles of Quebec, at a point where the river narrows to a width of 2400 feet at high water. The area of the waterway at high water is 200,000 square feet and at low water 160,000. For a width of about 1400 feet in the centre of the channel the water shelves rapidly from either shore into deep water, until it attains a maximum depth of nearly 200 feet. The proposed bridge, as designed by Messrs Brunlees, Light, & Claxton Fidler, will consist of three principal spans, entirely of steel, resting on masonry piers founded on the rock. The central span will have a clear width of 1442 feet, the underside of the superstructure being 150 feet above high water.

Quebec.

Seven miles below Quebec the St Lawrence is 4 miles Below wide and divides into two channels at the head of the Island of Orleans, nearly opposite which, on the north shore, are the celebrated falls of Montmorency, with a perpendicular descent of 240 feet and a width of 50 feet. At the foot of the island, which is 22 miles long, the river expands to a width of 11 miles. This width increases to 16 miles 90 miles farther on, at the mouth of the rivev Saguenay, which drains an area of 23,716 square miles

About 260 miles below Quebec, between Pointe des Monts | February 1781. After practising for some years as a conon the north and Cape Chat on the south, the St Lawrence has a width of 30 miles, and, as this expanse is doubled 30 miles farther seaward, Cape Chat has been considered by many geographers as the southern extremity of an imaginary line of demarcation between the St Lawrence river and the gulf of the same name It may, however, be assumed, with more propriety perhaps, taking the configuration of the gulf into special account, that Cape Gaspé, about 400 miles below Quebec and 430 miles from the Atlantic at the east end of the Straits of Belle Isle, is the true mouth of the St Lawrence river.

It has been calculated by Darby, the American hydrographer, that the mean discharge from the St Lawrence river and gulf, from an area rather largely estimated at 565,000 square miles, must be upwards of 1,000,000 cubic feet per second, taking into account the mean discharge at Niagara, which is 389,000 cubic feet per second from a drainage area of 237,000 square miles, and bearing in mind the well-ascertained fact that the tributaries of the lower St Lawrence, coming from mountainous woody regions where snow falls from 4 to 8 feet in depth, deliver more water per square mile than its upper tributaries.

The great prosperity and growth of Canada are owing no doubt to its unrivalled system of intercommunication by canal and river with the vast territories through which the St Lawrence finds its way from the far-off regions of the Minnesota to the seaboard. This great auxiliary of the railways (by means of which trade is now carried on at all seasons) must therefore be prominently taken into account in considering the transport routes of the future, their chief use being, as far as the conveyance of traffic over long distances is concerned, to augment, in the shape of feeders, the trade of the river, as long as it keeps open, and when it closes to continue the circulation of commerce by sledges until the ice breaks up and restores the river to its former activity. By the published statistics of the harbour commissioners of Montreal it appears that during the ten years 1870-79 the opening of the navigation at Montreal varied between 30th March and 1st May, and the close of the navigation between 26th November and 2d January, and that, whilst the first arrival from sea varied from 20th April to 11th May, the last departure to sea only varied from 21st November to 29th November during the ten years. (c. A. H.) According to the chief geographer of the United States Geological Survey, the following were the principal data for the St Lawrence lakes in 1886. Area of basin of St Lawrence 457,000 square miles, of which 330,000 belong to Canada and 127,000 to the United States. Lake Superior-area 31,200 square miles, length 412 miles, maximum breadth 167 miles, maximum depth 1008 feet, altitude above sea-level 602 feet. Lake Huron-area 21,000 square miles, 263 miles long, 101 broad, maximum depth 702 feet, altitude 581 feet. Lake Michigan-area 22,450 square miles, maximum breadth 84 miles, length 345 miles, maximum depth 870 feet, altitude 581 feet. Lake St Clair-29 miles long. Lake Erie-area 9960 square miles, length 250 miles, maximum breadth 60 miles, maximum depth 210 feet, height above sea-level 573 feet and above Lake Ontario 326 feet. Lake Ontario-area 7240 square miles, length 190 miles, breadth 54 miles, maximum depth 788 feet, elevation. 247 feet. In 1885 the enrolled vessels on the St Lawrence lakes belonging to the United States numbered 2497 (steam 1175, sailing 1322) with an aggregate burthen of 648,988 tons (steam 835,859 tons, sailing 313,129 tons).

ST LEONARDS is the name given to the western and more modern part of HASTINGS (q.v.), a watering-place on the coast of Sussex, England. St Leonards proper, which formed only a small part of the district now included under that name, was at one time a separate township. The population of St Leonards in 1881 was 7165.

ST LEONARDS, EDWARD BURTENSHAW SUGDEN, LORD (1781-1875), lord chancellor of England, was the son of a hairdresser in Duke Street, Westminster, and was born in

veyancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807, having already published his well-known treatise on the Law of Vendors and Purchasers. In 1822 he was made king's counsel and chosen a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was returned at different times for various boroughs to the House of Commons, where he made himself prominent by his opposition to the Reform Bill of 1832. He was appointed solicitor-general in 1829, was named lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again filled the same office from 1841 to 1846. Under Lord Derby's first administration in 1852 he became lord chancellor and was raised to the peerage as Lord St Leonards. In this position he devoted himself with energy and vigour to the reform of the law; Lord Derby on his return to power ir. 1858 again offered him the same office, which from considerations of health he declined. He continued, however, to take an active interest especially in the legal matters that came before the House of Lords, and bestowed his particular attention on the reform of the law of property. He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, 29th January 1875. Lord St Leonards was the author of various important legal publications, many of which have passed through several editions. Powers, Cases decided by the House of Lords, Gilbert on Uses, New Besides the treatise on purchasers already mentioned, they include Real Property Laws, and Handybook of Property Law.

ST LO, a town of France, chef-lieu of the department of Manche, on the right bank of the Vire, 195 miles west by north of Paris by the railway which here breaks up into two branches for Coutances and Vire respectively. The old town stands on a rocky hill (110 feet high) commanding the river; the modern town spreads out below. Notre Dame is a Gothic building of the 14th century, with portal and two towers of the 15th. In the townhouse is the Torigny marble, commemorating the assemblies held in Gaul under the Romans and now serving as a pedestal for the bust of Leverrier the astronomer, who was born at St Lô. The museum has some good pictures, and in the abbey of St Croix there are windows of the 14th century. The Champs de Mars is a fine tree-planted place. Horse-breeding, cloth and calico weaving, woolspinning, currying and tanning, are the local industries. The population in 1881 was 9889 (10,121 in the commune).

St Lô, founded in the Gallo-Roman period, was originally called Briovira (bridge on the Vire), and afterwards St Etienne, the present name being from one of its bishops (Lo, Laudus), who lived in the 6th century. By the time of Charlemagne the town was already surrounded with walls and contained the abbey, which was sacked by the Normans. In 1141 it fell into the hands of Geoffrey Plantagenet. But in 1203 the castle opened its gates to Philip Augustus, and, weaving being introduced, St Lô soon became a flourishing industrial centre. In the middle of the 14th century Edward III. of England captured the town and according to Froissart obtained immense booty. It was again taken by the English in 1417, but the victory of Formigny (1450) restored it permanently to France. The hearty welcome it gave to the Reformation brought upon St Lô new disasters and new sieges. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes led to the emigration of a part of the inhabitants. In 1800 the town was made the centre of the department, but by Napoleon's orders it was deprived of its fortifications.

ST LOUIS, the capital of Senegambia or Senegal, West Africa, and known to the natives as far as Timbuktu as N'dar, is built on an island 10 sea-miles above the mouth of the Senegal river, near the right bank, which is there a narrow strip of sand-the Langue de Barbarieoccupied by the villages of N'dar Toute and Guet N'dar. Two bridges on piles connect the town with the villages; and the Pont Faidherbe, 2132 feet long and constructed in 1863, affords communication with Bouetville, a suburb and the terminus of the railway, on the left bank. The houses of the European portion of St Louis have for the most part flat roofs, balconies, and terraces. Besides the governor's residence the most prominent buildings are the cathedral, the great mosque, the court-house, and the

various barracks and offices connected with the army. I wood, asphalt, and limestone blocks and Telford paveThe town also contains the Senegal bank (1855), a Govern- ments are also used. There are nearly 300 miles of mac

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ment printing-office (1855), a chamber of commerce (1869),

a public library, and an. agricultural society (1874). The round beehive huts of Guet N'dar are mainly inhabited by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists of villas with gardens, and is frequented as a summer watering-place. There is a pleasant public. garden in the town, and the neighbourhood is rendered attractive by alleys of datepalms. As there are no natural wells on the island, and the artesian well at the north side of the town gives only brackish water, St Louis used to be dependent on raintanks and the river (and except during the rainy season the water in the lower part of. the river is salt); but in 1879 1,600,000 francs were appropriated to the construction of a reservoir at a height of 300 feet above the sea, 7 miles from the town. The mouth of the Senegal being closed by a bar of sand with extremely shifting entrances for small vessels, the steamships of the great European lines do not come up to St Louis, and passengers, in order to meet them, are obliged to proceed by rail to Dakar, on the other side of Cape Verd. Ordinary vessels have often to wait outside or inside the bar for days or weeks and partial unloading is often necessary. It is proposed to construct a pier opposite Guet N'dar. The population of St Louis was 15,980 in 1876 and 18,924 in 1883. Though founded in 1662, the town did not receive a municipal government till August 1872. See SENEGAL.

ST LOUIS, a city of the United States, chief city of the State of Missouri, is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi river, 20 miles below its confluence with the Missouri river and 200 miles above the influx of the Ohio, in 38° 38' 3"-6 N. lat. and 90° 12'17" W. long. It is distant by river about 1200 miles from New Orleans, and 729 from St Paul at the head of navigation on the Mississippi, and occupies a position near the centre of the great basin through which the mingled flood of the Mississippi and Missouri and their extensive system of tributaries is carried to the Gulf of Mexico. The site embraces a series of undulations extending westwards with a general direction nearly parallel to the river, which at this point makes a wide curve to the east. The extreme length in a straight line is 17 miles, the greatest width 6.60 miles, the length of river front 19.15 miles, and the area (including considerable territory at present suburban in character) 62 square miles. The elevation af the city directrix above the waters of the Gulf of Mexico is 428 feet, that of the highest point of ground in the city above the directrix is 203 feet; the extreme high-water mark above the directrix is 7 feet 7 inches, and the extreme low-water mark below the same is 33 feet 9 inches. The elevated site of the city prevents any serious interruption of business by high water, even in seasons of unusual floods.

The plan of the city is rectilinear, the ground being laid out in blocks about 300 feet square, with the general direction of street lines north-south and east-west. The wharf or river front is known as the Levee or Front Street, the next street west is Main Street, and the next Second, and thence the streets going north-south are, with few exceptions, in numerical order (Third, Fourth, &c.). Fifth Street has recently been named Broadway. The east-west streets bear regular names (Chestnut, Pine, Washington, Franklin, and the like). Market Street is regarded as the middle of the city, and the numbering on the intersecting streets commences at that line, north and south respectively. One hundred house numbers are allotted to each block, and the blocks follow in numerical order. The total length of paved streets in St Louis is 316 miles, of unpaved streets and roads 427, total 743 miles. In the central streets, subject to heavy traffic, the pavement is of granite blocks;

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adamized streets, including the roadways in the new limits. The length of paved alleys is about 66 miles. The city has an extensive sewer system (total length 223 miles), and, owing to the elevation of the residence and business districts above the river, the drainage is admirable. The largest sewer, Mill Creek (20 feet wide and 15 feet high), runs through the middle of the city, from west to east, following the course of a stream that existed in earlier days. The water-supply is derived from the Mississippi; the water is pumped into settling basins at Bissell's Point, and thence into the distributing pipes, the surplus flowing to the storage reservoir on Compton Hill, which has a capacity of 60,000,000 gallons. The length of water-pipe is nearly 250 miles; the capacity of the low-service engines which pump the water into the settling basins is 56,000,000 gallons in twenty-four hours, and that of the high-service engines which supply the distributing system 70,000,000 gallons. The average daily consumption in twenty-four hours is nearly 28,000,000 gallons. The works, which are owned by the city, cost over $6,000,000. Among the more

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