under THEFT. It may be useful to recapitulate shortly the main points | a pawnee in default of payment (see PLEDGE). Sales by persons of difference between Roman and English law. They have.not owners at all must as a rule, in order to be valid, be made to all been noticed in the preceding part of this article. (1) In the case of real estate a bona fide purchaser for valuable conpurchasers ignorant of the defect of title on the part of the vendor. Arrha was not the same as earnest. (2) Written contracts sideration without notice, actual or implied, of any adverse title were not necessary in Roman law under any circumstances. is protected. This is on the principle that equity assists the person (3) There was no warranty of title in Roman law: the in possession of the legal estate. In the case of personal property transfer was of vacua possessio, not of ownership; in Eng- and in the case of stolen goods. The effect of the Factors Acts is title may be passed by a person nat owner under the Factors Acts land there is a warranty of title (unless the parties otherto enable title to be given by the vendor or vendee or any person wise intend) on sales of personalty, but not on sales of real on his behalf while he is in possession of the documents of title property, though the covenants for title practically amount (see FACTORS). The law as to the sale of stolen goods will be found to a warranty. (4) There was a warranty of quality Pre-emption. This is a right of purchasing some particular extending to undisclosed defects in Roman law beyond property given to some particular person in priority to the public. anything recognized by English law. (5) By Roman law it is conferred either by agreement between parties or by law. the property did not pass until traditio; even then it was Thus by the Lands Clauses Act, 1845, before the promoters of an only property in a modified sense; it was rather vacua undertaking dispose of superfluous lands not required for the purposes of the undertaking they must (with certain exceptions) first possessio secured by dupla stipulatio; by English law the offer to sell the same to the person then entitled to the lands from property in specific ascertained goods vests by the contract which the same were originally severed. In the United States prein the buyer. (6) A sale by a person who was not the emption is very important in its connexion with the homestead owner was not good in Roman law; it is good in certain law (see HOMESTEAD). In international law the right is exercisable by a belligerent nation over property not strictly contraband, but cases in English law (see below). which would still be of advantage to the enemy. The goods are not seized and condemned, but purchased by the capturing nation at a reasonable compensation. The right of pre-emption is given to the admiralty by 27 and 28 Vict. c. 25, s. 38 (see CONTRABAND). The old crown prerogative of purveyance and pre-emption was a right of buying up provisions and other necessaries for the royal household at a valuation even without the consent of the owner, and also of impressing horses and carriages for the king's service on the public roads upon paying a settled price to the proprietor. The right was relinquished by the Act abolishing the feudal tenures (12 Car. II. c. 24). There are certain kinds of sale which it is proposed to consider separately on account of the exceptional circumstances in which they stand. Compulsory Sale.-As a general rule sale is a matter of contract between the parties, and no one can be forced to sell against his will. But in this, as in other matters, the right of the state comes in. Under the powers of the Lands Clauses and other Acts the state, exercising its right of eminent domain, may force an owner to sell for the purpose of public improvements,—such as railways. The power of compulsory sale is less common where the interests of the state are not involved; an example occurs in the Partition Act, 1868, under which the court may order a sale instead of a division, even though some of the parties interested dissent. Judicial Sale.-Under this head may be grouped all those sales which are made under the authority and by the direction of a court of justice. In regard to real property the most important example is the sale by order of the Chancery Division. Such a sale may be ordered either under the original jurisdiction of the court or under the provisions of certain Acts of Parliament, such as the Lunacy Regulation Act, 1853, the Partition Act, 1868, the Settled Estates Act, 1877, or the Settled Land Act, 1882 (see SETTLEMENT). The Conveyancing Act, 1881, provides for freeing any land from encumbrances on sale by the court, on payment into court of a sum to meet the encumbrance. The Act also makes the order for sale conclusive in favour of a purchaser in almost every case. The abstract of title in a sale by the court is submitted to one of the conveyancing counsel of the Chancery Division, and the particulars and conditions are settled in judges' chambers. The sale is generally by public auction, the auctioneer being appointed by the judge. The regulations for the conduct of sales by the court will be found in the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Ord. li. r. 1-13. The Bankruptcy Act, 1883, gives power to a trustee acting under the authority of a court of bankruptcy to sell all or any part of the property of a bankrupt by public auction or private contract. Similar rights are given by the Scotch Bankruptcy Act, 1856. Judicial sales of the property of a debtor in Scotland are regulated by 19 and 20 Vict. c. 92. The term "judicial sale" does not seem to be used as a technical term in English as it is in Scotch law. In admiralty actions a vessel may be sold under a commission of appraisement and sale issued by the court. The practice is now regulated by Ord. li. r. 14-16. Similar powers may be exercised in an action of sett in Scotland. A common instance of a judicial sale is the sale by a sheriff of an execution debtor's goods under a writ of fieri facias or venditioni exponas. Where the execution is for a sum above £20 the sale is, unless the court otherwise orders, to be by public auction. Where the sheriff has seized and a claim by interpleader is set up, the court may order a sale of the whole or part of the goods (Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Ord. lvii. r. 12). The same rules (Ord. 1. r. 2) give a valuable power to the court or a judge of ordering a sale of any goods of a perishable nature, or such as for any reason it may be desirable to have sold at once. Sale by Persons not Owners.-English law in general agrees with the rule in Dig. 1. 17, 54, "Nemo plus juris ad alium transferre potest quam ipse haberet," and a purchaser takes his purchase subject to informalities in the title. To this rule there are several exceptions, in which title may be given by persons who are limited owners or not owners at all. An example of sale by a limited owner is a sale by a tenant for life under the powers given by the Settled Land Act, 1882. Under the same head would fall sales by persons having a qualified right of sale under particular circumstances, such as a sheriff, the master of a ship in a foreign port, or Scotland. The law of Scotland follows the Roman law more closely than does English law. Thus in Scotch as in Roman law. the contract of sale is called a consensual contract; the sale is not complete until delivery, and market overt does not afford any protection. Writing is essential to the sale of heritable property, not by any statute, as in England, but by the ancient unwritten law. Rei interventus may, however, in some cases, like part performance in England, supply the place of writings. The vendor is bound on completion to supply a sufficient progress of titles. In addition to the protection afforded to the purchaser by the progress of titles the statutory form of warrandice in 31 and 32 Vict. c. 101, s. 8 implies, unless specially qualified, absolute warrandice as regards the lands and writs and evidents, and warrandice from fact and deed as regards the rents,-that is to say, that a good title to the land has been conveyed, and that the granter has not done and will not do anything contrary to the writ as regards the rents (see Watson, Law Dict., s. v. "Warrandice "). In the case of movables writing is not necessary for a good contract of sale, except where the sale is of a ship, or the parties agree to reduce the terms to writing. The Mercantile Law Amendment (Scotland) Act, 1856 (19 and 20 Vict. c. 60), has made important changes in the law of Scotland. "The statute was passed for the purpose of assimilating the law of Scotland to that of England "(Lord Watson, in M'Bain v. Wallace, Law Reports, 6 Appeal Cases, 588). By section 1 goods after sale but before delivery are not attachable by the creditors of the seller. By section 2 the sub-purchaser may demand that delivery be made to him instead of to the original purchaser, without prejudice to the right of retention of the seller. By section 3 the seller of goods may attach the goods while in his own possession at any time prior to the date when the sale of such goods shall have been intimated to him. By section 5 the English principle of caveat emptor is introduced: "where goods shall be sold the seller, if at the time of the sale he was without knowledge that the same were of defective or of bad quality, shall not be held to have warranted their quality or sufficiency, but the goods, with all faults, shall be at the risk of the purchaser, unless the seller shall have given an express warranty of the quality or sufficiency of such goods, or unless the goods have been expressly sold for a specified and particular purpose, in which case the seller shall be considered, without such warranty, to warrant that the same are fit for such purpose. The right of retention corresponds closely to the right of lien in England, but rests upon the simpler ground of undivested property (see Watson, Law Dict., s. v. "Sale"). Criminal liability for fraud seems to be carried farther in Scotland than in England (see FRAUD). " United States.-The law as to the sale of real estate agrees generally with English law. It is considerably simplified by the system of REGISTRATION (q.v.). The covenant of warranty, unknown in England, is the principal covenant for title in the United States. It corresponds generally to the English covenant for quiet enjoyment. The right of judicial sale of buildings under a mechanic's lien for labour and materials is given by the law of many States. Mysore. The western part of the district is very mountainous, some of the ranges attaining an elevation of between 5000 and 6000 feet. Amongst the chief ranges are the Shevaroys, the Kalráyans, the Melagiris, the Kollimalais, the Pachamalais, and the Yelagiris. The chief rivers are the Cauvery with its numerous tributaries, and the Pennar and Palar; the last, however, only flows through a few miles of the Tirupatúr táluk, situated in the north-western corner of the district. The forests are of considerable value and their area is roughly estimated at 2251 square miles. The geological structure of the district is mostly gneissic, with a few irruptive rocks in the form of trap dykes and granite veins. Magnetic iron ore is common in the hill regions, and corundum and chromate of iron are also obtainable. The qualities of the soil differ very much; in the country immediately surrounding the town of Salem a thin layer of calcareous and red loam generally prevails, through which quartz rocks appear on the surface in many places. The climate, owing to the great difference of elevation, varies considerably; on the hills it is cool and bracing, and for a great part of the year very salubrious; the average rainfall is about 38 inches. Salem has about 1400 miles of road, and the length of railway line within the district is 134 miles. The sale of public lands is regulated by Act of Congress (Revised | Bálághát is situated above the Ghats on the tableland of Statutes, 2353-2379). In the law of sale of personal property American law is also based upon English law. The principal dit ferences are that the law of market overt (see THEFT) is not recognized by the United States, and that an unpaid vendor is the agent of the vendee to resell on non-payment, and is entitled to recover the difference between the contract price and the price of resale. The law of Louisiana (Civil Code, § 3194) gives the unpaid vendor a still greater right in his preferential claim for the price against the creditors of the purchaser, if the property still remains in the .latter's possession. Warranty of title is not carried as far as in England. United States decisions draw a distinction between goods in the possession and goods not in the possession of the vendor at the time of sale. There is no warranty of title of the latter. The Statute of Frauds has been construed in some respects differently from the English decisions. The differences will be found in Mr Benjamin's work. As to unlawful sales, it has been held that a sale in a State where the sale is lawful is valid in a State where it is unlawful by statute, even though the goods are in the latter State. (J. Wt.) SALEIYER (in Mancassarese Sillyara, in Buginese Silaja), also called Tana-dowang ("Land of Shrimps"), is a Dutch island separated from the south coast of Celebes (East Indies) by a strait 8 miles wide, which in the west monsoon is used by vessels bound for the Moluccas, the Philippines, and China. With a length of 46 miles and general breadth of 9, the area is estimated at 315 square miles. Along the east side of the island is a belt of volcanic rock; the west side is of limestone or coralline formation. The highest point seems to be Haru on the east coast, but estimates of its altitude vary from 1000 to 3000 feet. There are no navigable rivers, and many of the streams dry up in the west monsoon. Besides most of the ordinary tropical fruits, the cultivated plants comprise Indian corn, barley, potatoes, tobacco, coffee, and indigo, and among the trees are cocoanut and areng palms, kanari, ebony, and teak (the last considered the property of the Dutch Government). Horses, buffaloes, goats, and sheep are kept, and pigs and deer exist in a wild state. The population of Saleiyer and dependencies, mainly a mixed race of Mancassars, Buginese, and natives of Luvu and Buton, was in 1869 55,147, and in 1880 66,276. They use the Mancassar language, are for the most part nominally Mahommedans (though many heathen customs survive), and support themselves by agriculture, fishing, seafaring, trade, the preparation of salt (on the south coast), and the weaving of clothing materials. Field work is largely performed by a servile class. Raw and prepared cotton, tobacco, trepang, tortoise-shell, cocoanuts and cocoanut oil, and salt are the principal articles of export. The island is divided into nine regencies:-Tanette, Batammata (Batangmata; including the former regency of Onto), Buki, MareMare, Boneya-all five in the north-Bontobangung, Balla-hulo, Layolo, and Barambarang—in the south. Panggiliyang or Benteng on the west coast, often called also Saleiyer, is the capital of the island. It stands in 6° 3′ 3′′ S. lat. and 120° 31' 48" E. long., and possesses the best harbour on the whole coast, being protected by Pulo Pasi or Hog Island (also Sariwa or Pulo Babi). To the Saleiyer group belong a variety of small islands, for the most part uninhabited-Tana Jampêya (the largest of all with a good anchorage at Maringi Bay), Gowang, Malimbu, &c. Previous to the Dutch occupation the Saleiyers were subject to the king of Ternate. SALEM, a British district of India, in Madras presidency, lying between 11° 1' and 12° 57' N. lat. and 77° 32′ and 79° 5' E. long. It embraces an area of 7653 square miles, and is bounded on the N. by Mysore and North Arcot, on the S. by Coimbatore and Trichinopoly, on the E. by Trichinopoly and South and North Arcot, and on the W. by Coimbatore and Mysore. Except towards the south, the district is very hilly, with large plains lying between the several ranges. Salem is described as consisting of three distinct tracts of country, known as the Talaghat, the Báramahál, and the Bálághát. The Tálaghát is situated below the Eastern Ghats on the level of the Carnatic gener ally; the Báramahál includes the whole Salem face of the Ghats and a wide tract of country at their base. and the In 1881 the population was 1,599,595 (males 778,483, females 821,112); Hindus numbered 1,531,855, Mohammedaus 51,092, and Christians 16,567. Besides Salem (see below), the capital, the district contains three other towns with a population exceeding 10,000 each, viz., Daringambadi (15,426), Tirupatúr (14,278), and Shendamangalam (12,575). Of the total area of the district only 1,283,190 acres were under cultivation in 1883-84; but of these 137,403 acres were twice cropped. The staple crops are rice and The chief ragi; other important crops are pulses and seeds. industry is weaving, which is carried on in almost every large town and village. Carpets of great beauty and superior workmanship are made in the Salem jail. Good iron and steel are made, but only on a on a small scale. The gross revenue of the district in 1883-84 was £260,364, the land-tax contributing £211,062 of the amount. Though Salem has no connected history, there are few parts of Southern India that contain more spots of interest for English students. As at present composed it was acquired by the treaty of peace with Tipu Sultan in 1792 and the partition treaty of Mysore in 1799. By the former the Tálaghát and Báramahál were ceded, and by the latter the Bálághát, or what is now the Osúr táluk. SALEM, chief town of the above district, situated in 11° 39′ 10′′ N. lat. and 78° 11′ 47′′ E. long., is a busy trading place, with a considerable weaving industry. It is tolerably well built and is prettily situated on the river Tirumanimuttar, 900 feet above sea-level, in a long valley enclosed by the Shevaroy hills, which are 6 miles distant. The population of the town in 1881 was 50,667 (males 24,584, females 26,083). SALEM, a city of the United States, capital of Essex county, Massachusetts, is built on a peninsula between two inlets of the sea (North river and South river), in 42° 31' 18" N. lat. and 70° 53′ 53′′ W. long., 16 miles north by east of Boston, on the Eastern Railroad. In the latter part of the 18th and the early part of the 19th century Salem was the seat of a flourishing foreign commerce, especially with the East Indies; but, its comparatively shallow harbour failing to accommodate the larger vessels of modern times, it has been supplanted by Boston and has to content itself with a good share of the coasting trade. Its industrial activity has, on the other hand, increased, and it now possesses steam cotton-mills, jute-factories, extensive tanneries, and various minor manufactories. The main interest, however, of Salem consists in its historical and literary associations and the institutions by which they are represented. Best known of these institutions is the Peabody Academy, founded in 1867 with funds provided by the well known philanthropist. The academy at once purchased and refitted the East India Marine Hall, origin. ally built in 1824 by the East India Marine Society (1799), | which consisted of captains and supercargoes who had doubled either Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope; and the building now contains under the trusteeship of the academy the collections of the old East India Museum and those of the Essex Institute, illustrating the zoology, natural history, and archeology of the county. The ethnographical collections, such as that dealing with Corea, are especially valuable. The American Naturalist has been the organ of the academy since 1867. The Peabody Institute, not to be confounded with the academy, is in the village of Peabody (Danvers), about 2 miles distant from Salem and about midway between the house in which the philanthropist was born and the grave, in Harmony Grove cemetery, in which he was buried. The institute contains various personal relics of the founder, such as the famous portrait of Queen Victoria. Plummer Hall, a fine building in Essex Street, erected out of funds left to the Salem Athenæum by Miss Plummer, contains the libraries of the Athenæum, the Essex Institute, and the South Essex Medical Society, making an aggregate of 50,000 volumes. Behind this hall is the frame of the oldest church edifice in New England, erected in 1634 for Roger Williams. Other buildings of note in Salem are a State normal school, the city hall, the court-house, St Peter's Episcopal church, the customhouse, in which Nathaniel Hawthorne once acted as clerk, and several of the private houses (such as "Dr Grimshawe's house," the dwelling really occupied by Dr Peabody, Mrs Hawthorne's father) which, while not exactly prototypes, have lent much of their verisimilitude to the localities of Hawthorne's fiction. The house in which the novelist was born is 21 Union Street. Salem had 24,117 inhabitants in 1870, 26,063 in 1875, and 27,563 in 1880. Naumkeag (Eel Land) was the, Indian name of the district in which Salem stands, and is still used familiarly by the inhabitants. The first house was built by Roger Conants from Cape Ann in 1626, and two years later a settlement was formed by John Endicott and called Salem, "from the peace they had and hoped in it." In 1630 Governor John Winthrop introduced a large body of colonists from England, including the brave and beautiful Arabella Johnson, daughter of the earl of Lincoln, who died shortly afterwards. In 1661 the Quakers were persecuted at Salem, and in 1692 the town was the scene of Cotton Mather's terrible proceedings against witchcraft: nineteen persons were hanged on Gallows Hill and Giles Cory was pressed to death. It was in Salem that in 1774 the house of representatives of Massachusetts resolved themselves into a sovereign political power. The town obtained a city charter in 1836. Few cities of the United States have given more eminent men to the world-Timothy Pickering, secretary of state (1795-1880), General Israel Putnam, F. T. Ward of China celebrity, John Rogers the sculptor, Bowditch the astronomer and mathematician, Maria S. Cummins the novelist, W. H. Prescott the historian, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. SALEM, a city of the United States, the county seat of Salem county, New Jersey, on a small stream of the same name, by which it has steam communication with Philadelphia (on the Delaware), 44 miles distant to the northnorth-east by rail. While Salem depends mainly on the agricultural prosperity of the surrounding district, it also contains foundries and machine-shops, fruit-canning establishments, glass-ware factories, oil-cloth factories, &c. The population was 3052 in 1850, 4555 in 1870, and 5056 in 1880. A colony settled on the site of Salem in 1641 was replaced by a Swedish fort, and this passed through the Dutch to the English. One of the Quakers who in 1673 bought Lord Berkeley's half of New Jersey gave the place its present name and restored the settlement, which in 1682 was declared a port of entry. In 1778 the town was plundered by Colonel Manhood. SALEM, a city of the United States, the capital of Oregon, in Marion county, on the east bank of Willamette river, 53 miles south of Portland by the Oregon and California Railroad. It lies in a fertile prairie district, adorned with copses, and possesses a good source of waterpower in Mill Creek. The capitol, a rather im oosing edifice with a tower 180 feet high, erected in 1875-76, occupies a fine site above the city; other public buildings are the Willamette University (Methodist), which grants degrees in medicine, science, and general literature, the opera-house, the Roman Catholic school for girls, the State penitentiary, and State schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind. Lumber, woollen goods, flour, leather, brass castings, furniture, linseed oil, and building materials are the chief articles of manufacture and trade. The population was 2538 in 1881. Settled in 1834, incorporated in 1853, Salem became the State capital in 1860. SALEP (Arab. saḥleb, Gr. öpɣıs), a drug extensively used in the East as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also much prescribed in paralytic affections, probably owed its original popularity to the belief in the so-called "doctrine of signatures." In Europe it is chiefly used as a demulcent drink, but is also supposed to possess nutrient properties; it may be employed with advantage in inflammatory conditions of the mucous membrane, as in bronchitis, diarrhoea, cystitis, and other urinary disorders. It consists of the tuberous roots of various species of Orchis and Eulophia, which are decorticated, washed, heated until horny in appearance, and then carefully dried. The most important constituent of salep is a kind of mucilage which it yields to cold water to the extent of 48 per cent. This mucilage in its chemical reactions is more nearly allied to cellulose than to gum, since when dry it is readily soluble in ammoniacal solution of copper; when boiled with nitric acid it yields oxalic but not mucic acid. Salep also contains sugar and albumen, and when fresh traces of a volatile oil; dried at 100° C. it yields 2 per cent. of ash, chiefly the phosphates and chlorides of potassium and calcium. Salep was formerly imported into Europe from the Levant, but in 1760 the French chemist Geoffroy discovered its true nature and showed how it might be prepared from the species of Orchis indigenous to France. That used in Germany is obtained from plants growing wild in the Taunus Mountains, the Westerwald, the Rhön, the Odenwald, and Franconia. Grecian salep is chiefly collected in Macedonia. In Asia Minor the tubers are collected near Melassa and Mughla, and about 330 tons are annually exported from Smyrna. The salep of the Bombay market, which is imported principally from Persia, Cabul, and northern India, occurs in three forms, palmate, large ovoid, and small ovoid tubers on strings, all more or less horny and translucent. Salep is also produced on the Nilgiri (Neilgherry) Hills and in Ceylon. Besides the above-mentioned forms, elongated cylindrical tubers, usually in pairs and undecorticated, are occasionally met with. The palmate tubers are the most highly esteemed, being valued at ten rupees per pound. This variety is known in the Bombay market as Persian salep. It is probably derived chiefly from O. latifolia, L., although O. maculata, L., O. saccifera, Brongn., and O. conopsea, L., also afford palmate tubers. The species known to yield ovate salep are O. mascula, O. Morio, O. pyramidalis, O. ustulata, O. militaris, O. coriophora, L., and O. longicruris, Link. All these species are natives of the greater part of central and southern Europe, Turkey, the Caucasus, and O. conopsea to the Amur, in the extreme east of Asia. Salep is and Asia Minor, O. latifolia extending to western India and Tibet not easily reduced to powder, being both hard and tough, and is therefore usually ground between millstones. This difficulty is said to be lessened if the salep is first soaked in cold water until soft and then rapidly dried. As the powder does not mix readily with water, the authors of Pharmacographia (2d ed. p. 656) recommend that it should be first mixed with 1 parts of rectified spirits of wine (brandy or other strong spirit would answer equally well), 40 parts of cold water being then added quickly and the mixture boiled. In these proportions saiep affords a thick jelly. SALERNO, a city of Italy and the chief town of a province of its own name (formerly Principato Citeriore), is beautifully situated on the west coast 34 miles south-east of Naples, and presents a fine appearance with the ruins of its old Norman castle on an eminence 905 feet above the sea and its background of graceful limestone hills. The town walls were destroyed in the beginning of the 19th century; the seaward portion has given place to the Corso Garibaldi, the principal promenade. Among the conspicuous buildings are the theatre, the prefecture, and the cathedral of St Matthew (whose bones were brought from Pæstum to Salerno in 954), begun in 1076 by Robert Guiscard and consecrated in 1084 by Gregory VII. In front is a beautiful quadrangular court (112 by 102 feet), surrounded by arcades formed of twenty-eight ancient pillars mostly of granite; and the middle entrance into the church is closed by a remarkable bronze door of 11th or 12th century Byzantine work. The nave and two aisles end in apses. Two magnificent marble ambos, the larger dating from 1175, several specimens of ancient mosaic, and the tombs of Gregory VII. and Queen Margaret of Durazzo deserve to be mentioned. In the crypt is a bronze statue of St Matthew. The lofty aqueduct, one of whose arches is now used by the railway, is a building of 1320; the present water-supply is provided by a canal formed in 1865. A fine port constructed by Giovanni da Procida in 1260 was destroyed when Naples became the capital of the kingdom, and remained blocked with sand till after the unification of Italy. A series of works, especially those decreed in 1880, have provided an inner harbour of 40 acres (depth 12 to 22 feet), an outer harbour (22 to 25 feet), and wharves to the extent of 4468 feet. In 1884 180 vessels (29,078 tons) entered and 173 (28,069) cleared. Silk and cotton spinning are the principal industries. The population was 19,905 in 1870 and 22,328 (commune, 31,245) in 1881. A Roman colony was founded at Salerno (Salernum) in 194 B c. to keep the Picentines in check, but the city makes no figure in history till after the Lombard conquest. Dismantled by order of Charle magne, it became in the 9th century the capital of an independent principality, the rival of that of Benevento, and was surrounded by strong fortifications. The Lombard princes, who had frequently defended their city against the Saracens, succumbed before Robert Guiscard, who took the castle after an eight months' siege and made Salerno the capital of his new territory. The removal of the court to Palermo and the sack of the city by the emperor Henry VI. in 1194 put a stop to its development. The position which the medical school of the Civitas Hippocratica (as it called itself on its seals) held in medieval times has been described under MEDICINE, vol. XV. pp. 806-807. Salerno university, founded in 1150, and long one of the great seats of learning in Italy, was closed in 1817. SALES, FRANÇOIS DE (1567-1622), see vol. ix. p. 695. SALFORD. See MANCHESTER, vol. xv. p. 459 sq. SALICIN, the bitter principle of willow bark, was discovered by Leroux in 1831. It exists in most species of Salix and Populus, and has been obtained to the extent of 3 or 4 per cent. from the bark of S. helix and S. pentandra. According to Herberger, the bark of the young branches affords salicin in larger proportion than that of the trunk and contains less of the other ingredients which interfere with its extraction. Salicin is prepared from a decoction of the bark by first precipitating the tannin by milk of lime, then evaporating the filtrate to a soft extract, and dissolving out the salicin by alcohol. As met with in commerce it is usually in the form of glossy white scales or needles. It is neutral to test paper, inodorous, unaltered by exposure to the air, and has a persistently bitter taste. It is soluble in about 30 parts of alcohol or water at the ordinary temperature, and in 0.7 of boiling water or in 2 parts of boiling alcohol, and more freely in alkaline liquids. It is also soluble in acetic acid without alteration, but is insoluble in chloroform and benzol. From phloridzin it is distinguished by its ammoniacal solution not becoming coloured when exposed to the air. Cold sulphuric acid dissolves salicin, forming a bright red solution. When salicin is heated with sulphuric acid and potassium bichromate, salicylic aldehyde (CHO) is formed, which possesses the odour of meadowsweet flowers (Spirea Ulmaria, L.). Salicin is chiefly used in medicine as an antipyretic in acute rheumatism, for which it is given in doses of 5 to 30 grains. Its action is less powerful than that of SALICYLIC ACID (q.v.), and its depressing effect on the circulation is less marked. It is also given for headache and for ague. Salicin is a glucoside, having the composition CH1807, and is not precipitated by the alkaloidal reagents. It has been prepared artificially from helicin, synthesized from sodium, salicyl-aldehyde. and aceto-chlorhydrose, being the first glucoside that has been artificially prepared (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1884, p. 439). According to Binz, it may be split up by digestion with emulsin or saliva into salicylic alcohol (saligenol, CHO2) and glucose; heating it gently with dilute sulphuric acid produces a similar effect. Salicylic alcohol is converted by oxidizing agents into salicylic acid. This acid is formed when salicin is taken internally, since salicin is eliminated from the system partly in the form of salicylic and salicyluric acids, and partly as saligenin. SALIC LAW, AND OTHER BARBARIAN LAWS. The (1) Lex Salica is one of those Teutonic laws of the early Middle Ages which are known as leges barbarorum, among which we also reckon the (2) Lex Ripuariorum or Ribuariorum, (3) Ewa (Lex) Francorum Chamavorum, (4) Lex Alamannorum, (5) Lex Bajuvariorum, (6) Lex Frisionum, (7) Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, h.e., Thuringorum, (8) Lex Saxonum, (9) Leges Anglo-Saxonum, (10) Lex Burgundionum, (10a) Lex Romana Burgundionum, (11) Lex Wisigothorum, (11a) Breviarium Alarici, (11b) Edictum Theodorici, (12) Leges Langobardorum, and to a certain extent (13) Leges Wallis. All these laws may in general be described as codes of procedure and of rights, which regulated for some indefinite period the internal affairs of the several Teutonic tribes whose names they bear. (1) The Salic Law originated with the Salian Franks, often simply called Salians, the chief tribe of that conglomeration of Teutonic peoples known as FRANKS (q.v.). The latter first appear in history about 240 (Vopisc., Vit. Map of Salic and other Barbarian Countries. Aurel., c. 7), after which date we find them carrying on an almost uninterrupted struggle with the Roman empire, till 486, when they finally established a kingdom of their own in provinces which had previously been considered Roman. The Salian Franks first appear under their specific name in 358, when they had penetrated westwards as far as Toxandria (Texandria, now Tessenderloo, in Limburg, the region to the south and west of the lower Meuse), where they were subdued by the emperor Julian (Ammian., xvii. 8). As regards their previous history nothing is known with certainty, though it seems probable that the Franks who occupied the Batavian island c. 290, and were there conquered in 292 by Constantius Chlorus (Paneg. incerti auth., c. 4), and thence transplanted into Gaul, were the Salian Franks. We find, moreover, such un ་ mistakable evidence of a connexion between the Sigambri and the Salii' that the latter are by some regarded as the descendants of the Sigambri whom Tiberius removed in 8 B.C. from their home on the right bank of the Rhine; and it is argued that he did not transform them into the Gugerni, nor place them on the Merwede, a stream and locality near Dordrecht and Zwijndrecht, but transplanted them into the region now called the Veluwe, between the Utrecht Vecht and the Eastern Yssel, where the Romans probably made of them what the Batavi had been for years past their allies-perhaps on the same condition as the latter, who merely furnished the Romans with men and arms. This accounts for the Sigambrian cohort in the Thracian War in 26 A.D. Some think, however, that the Salians were a separate tribe of the Franks who merely coalesced with the Sigambri (comp. Watterich, Die Germanen des Rheins; Waitz, Verfass., ii. 24). In 431 the Frankish (Salic) king Chlodio (Chlojo, Chlogio), said to have been a son (or the father) of Merovech, the founder of the Merovingian dynasty (Greg. Tur., ii. 9), took Cambrai and advanced his dominion as far as the Somme (Greg., ib.; Sid. Apoll., v. 211 sq.), though still acknowledging Roman supremacy. Childerich reigned from 457 to 481, and resided at Tournai, where his grave was discovered in 1653. His son Clovis (Chlovis, Chlodovech) in 486 extended his empire to the Seine (Greg. Tur., ii. 43, 27). For an account of him, see vol. ix. pp. 528, 529. We have very few means of ascertaining when the Salic Law 2 was compiled, and how long it remained in force. Our knowledge of the code is derived—(i.) from ten texts, preserved in a comparatively large number of manuscripts, chiefly written in the 8th and 9th centuries; (ii.) from allusions to a Salic Law in various charters and other documents. But the Latin texts do not contain the original Salic Law. This is clear (a) from the allusions we find in them to a "Lex Salica" and "Antiqua Lex," which can hardly be anything but references to another and earlier Lex Salica; (b) from a certain peculiarity and awkwardness in the construction of the Latin, which, though it is so-called Merovingian, and therefore very corrupt, would have been different if the texts were original compilations; (c) from a number of words, found in nearly every paragraph of certain groups of the MSS., and now known as "Malberg glosses," which are evidently the remains of a vernacular Salic Law, and appear to have been retained in the Latin versions, in some cases because the translators seemed doubtful as to whether their Latin terms correctly rendered the meaning of the original, in other cases because these words had become legal terms, and indicated a certain fine. We do not know whether the original Frankish law-book was ever reduced to writing, or merely retained in, and handed down to posterity from, the memory of some persons charged with the preservation of the law. All that we know of such an original is contained in a couple of prologues (apparently later than the texts themselves) found in certain MSS. of the existing 1 "Detonsus Vachalim [the river Waal] bibat Sicamber" (Sid. Apoll., Carm., xiii. 31). "Ut Salius jam rura colat flexosque Sicambri In falcem curvent gladios" (Claudian, De Laude Stilic., i. 222). According to the Gesta Franc., c. 1, the Franks at one time inhabited the town of Sicambria. The earliest Frankish kings, who were undoubtedly kings of the Salian Franks, are often called Sigambri, and always with the object of honouring them. St Remigins, when he baptized Clovis, exhorted him, "Mitis depone colla Sicamber " (Greg. Tur., ii. 31). Venantius Fortunatus (vi. 4) says to King Charibert, "Cum sis progenitus clara de gente Sygamber." For further evidence, comp. Waitz, Verfass., ii. 22 sq. 2 The origin of the name Salicus, Salius, is uncertain. It is not improbable that it was derived from the river Yssel, called in the Middle Ages Isloa, Hislon, Isla, Isela, Isalia. The region about Deventer, in the east of Holland, is still called Salland, though it is nowhere expressly said that the Salians ever lived there. | Latın versions. One of them states that four men "in villis quæ ultra Renum sunt per tres mallos (judicial assemblies) convenientes, omnes causarum origines sollicite discutiendo tractantes, judicium decreverunt," which must refer to a period before 358, as in that year the Salian Franks had already crossed the Rhine and occupied the Batavian island and Toxandria. Another prologue says that the Salic Law was compiled (dictare) while the Franks were still heathens (therefore before 496), and afterwards emended by Clovis, Childebert, and Chlotar. Nor can it be stated with certainty when the Latin translations which we now possess were made, but it must have been after Clovis had extended his power as far as the Loire (486-507), as in chapter 47 the boundaries of the Frankish empire are stated to be the Carbonaria Silva (in southern Belgium between Tournai and Liége) and the Loire.3 There exist five Latin recensions, more or less different.' (i.) The earliest of the code (handed down in four MSS. with little difference, and very likely compiled shortly after Clovis extended his empire to the Loire) consists of sixtyfive chapters (with the Malberg glosses). In the course of the 6th century a considerable number of chapters appear to have been added (under the title of "edicts". or "decrees"), some of which are ascribed to Clovis, and the remainder to his successors before the end of the century. One of them (chap. 78) may with some certainty be ascribed to Hilperic (c. 574). Some others seem to have originated with Childebert I. and Chlotar I. (whose joint reign lasted from 511 to 558), and are known collectively as "Pactus Childeberti et Chlotharii." From internal evidence we may infer that this first version dates from a time when Christianity had not yet become general among the Franks. (ii.) Two MSS. contain a second recension, having the same sixty-five chapters (with the Malberg glosses) as the first, but with numerous interpolations and additions, which point to a later period. Especially may this be said of the paragraph (in chap. 13) which pronounces fines on marriages between near relatives, and which is presumed to have been embodied in the Lex Salica from an edict of Childebert II. issued in 596. In chapter 55 paragraphs six and seven speak of a "basilica," of a "basilica sanctificata," and of a "basilica ubi requiescunt reliquiæ," but it is more than doubtful whether we have here any evidences of Christianity, though a later recension (the fourth) altered "basilica" into "ecclesia," the "reliquiæ" into "reliquiæ sanctorum," and thereby gave a decidedly Christian aspect to the clause. (iii.) A third recension is contained in a group of nine MSS. (divided into two classes), three of which have the same text (with the Malberg glosses) as the MSS. of the first and second recensions, divided, however, systematically into ninety-nine chapters, while the other six MSS. have the same ninety-nine chapters, with very little difference, but without the Malberg glosses. This text seems to have been arranged in Pippin's or Charlemagne's reign (c. 765-779). The clause on marriages between near relatives mentioned above is not found in this recension. On the other hand, we find in chapter 55 (=77) fines pronounced on the murder of a presbyter and deacon (no bishop yet mentioned), while the six MSS. of the second class do not contain chapter 99 "De Chrenecruda "), but merely say that the symbolism described in that chapter had been observed in heathen times, and was to be no longer in force. (iv.) The fourth version (handed down in a great number of MSS., and embodying in seventy chapters substantially the whole of the previous versions) is usually called Lex Salica Emendata, as the text bears traces of having been emended (by Charlemagne), which operation seems to have consisted in 3 Some explain Ligeris to be the river Leye, a branch of the Scheldt, in which case the compilation would fall between c. 453 and 486. |