the imáms and diminished the prosperity of their capital, but Cruttenden in 1836 still estirnated the population at 40,000, or, with the three neighbouring towns of Rauda, Jiráf, and Wády Dahr, at not less than 70,000. In 1870, when the imamate had been extinct for twenty years, and the town was governed by an elected sheikh and had lost its provinces, Halévy found it much decayed, with many of the palaces and public buildings demolished or used as quarries, but still presenting a comely aspect, with good streets, houses, and mosques. In 1872, having been hard pressed by the Bedouins for several years, Sanaa opened its gates to the Turks, who were then engaged in the reconquest of Yemen. In the following year Millingen estimated the population at only 20,000. The climate is good, though the extreme dryness of the air is trying. Rain usually falls in January and June, and more copiously in the end of July; the markets are well supplied with grain and fruit; vineyards were formerly numerous, but were largely given up after an attack of vine disease some thirty years ago. Arabic writers give many discordant and fabulous traditions about the oldest history of Sanaa and its connexion with the ancient kingdom of Himyar. But most agree that its oldest name was Azál, which seems to be the same word with Uzal in Gen. x. 27. A Himyarite nation of Auzalites occurs in a Syriac writer of the 6th century. The better-informed Arab writers knew also that the later name is due to the Abyssinian conquerors of Yemen, and that it meant in their language "fortified" (Bakri, p. 606; Nöldeke, Gesch. d. Pers. u. Arab., p. 187). Sanaa became the capital of the Abyssinian Abraha (c. 530 A.D.) who built here the famous church (Kalis), of whose splendour the Arabs give exaggerated pictures, and which was destroyed two centuries later by order of the caliph Manşúr (Azrakí, p. 91). SANÁ'Í. Abulmajd Majdúd b. Adam, commonly known as the hakim or philosopher Saná'í, the earliest among the great Súfic poets of Persia, was a native of Ghazna or Ghaznín (in the present Afghánistán), and flourished in the reigns of the Ghaznawid sultáns Ibráhím (10591099, 451-492 A.H.), his son Mas'úd (1099-1114), and his grandson Bahrámsháh, who, after some years of desperate struggle among members of his own family, ascended the throne in 1118 (512 A.H.) and died after a long and prosperous reign in 1152 (547 A.H.). The exact dates of the poet's birth and death are uncertain, Persian authorities giving the most conflicting statements: At any rate, he must have been born in the beginning of the second half of the 11th century and have died between 1131 and 1150 (525 and 545 A.H.). He gained already at an early age the reputation of a very learned and pious man and of an accomplished minstrel. Like his contemporaries Mas'ud b. Sa'd b. Salmán (died 1131), Hasan of Ghazna (died 1179), and Uthmán Mukhtárí (died 1149 or 1159), who was his master in the poetical art, he composed chiefly kaşídas in honour of his sovereign and the great men of the realm, but a peculiar incident made him for ever abandon the highly remunerative although often perilous career of a court-panegyrist, and turn his poetical aspirations to higher and less worldly aims. One day, when he was proceeding to the royal palace.to present an encomiastic song to Sultán Ibráhím, he was taunted by a half-mad but witty jester, who proposed a toast to the poet's blindness, because with all his learning and piety he had as yet only succeeded in flattering kings and princes, who were mere mortals like himself, and entirely misinterpreted God's motive in creating him. Saná'í was so struck with the appropriateness of this satirical remark that he forthwith gave up all the luxuries of court-life, retired from the world, and devoted himself after the due performance of the pilgrimage exclusively to devotional exercises, pious meditations, and the composition of Súfic poetry in praise of the Godhead and the divine unity. For forty years he led a life of retirement and poverty, and, although Sultán Bahrámsháh offered him not only a high position at court, but also his own sister in marriage, he remained faithful to the austere and solitary life he had chosen. But, partly to show his gratitude to the king, partly to leave a lasting monument of his genius behind him, that might act as a stimulus to all disciples of the pantheistic ereed, he began to write his great double-rhymed poem on ethics and religious life, which has served as model to Farid-uddin 'Attár's and Jalál-uddín Rúmf's Súfic masterpieces, the Hadikat-ulḥakikat, or 66 Garden of Truth" (also called Alkitab alfakhrí), in ten cantos, dealing with the following topics:-unity of the Godhead, the divine word, the excellence of the prophet, reason, knowledge and faith, love, the soul, worldly occupation and inattention to higher duties, stars and spheres and their symbolic lore, friends and foes, separation from the world, &c. One of Saná'í's earliest disciples, who wrote a preface to this work, 'Alf al-Raffá, alias Muhammed b. 'Ali Rakkám, assigns to its composition the date 1131 (525 A.H.), which in a considerable number of copies appears as 1140 (535 A.H.), and states besides that the poet died immediately after the completion of his task. Now, Saná'í cannot possibly have died in 1131, as another of his mathnawis, the Tarik-i-tahkik, or "Path to the Verification of Truth," was 1134 (528 A.H.), nor even in 1140, if he really wrote, composed, according to a chronogram in its last verses, in as the Atashkada says, an elegy on the death of Amír Mu'izzi; for this court-poet of Sultán Sanjar lived till 1147 or 1148 (542 A.H.). It seems, therefore, that Takí Káshi, the most accurate among Persian biographers, is right after all in fixing Sana'f's death in 1150 (545 A.H.), the more so as 'Ali al-Raffá, himself distinctly says in his preface that the poet breathed his last on the 11th of Sha'bán, "which was a Sunday," and it is only in 1150 that this day happened to be the first of the week. Saná'í left, besides the Hadikah and the Tarik i-tahkik, several other Súfic mathnawis of similar purport:-for instance, the Sair ulibád ilá'lma'ád, or Man's Journey towards the Other World" (also called Kunúz-urrumúz, "The Treasures of Mysteries "); the Iskknáma, or "Book of Love;" the 'Aklnáma, or "Book of Intellect;" the Kárnáma, or "Record of Stirring Deeds," &c.; and an extensive díwán or collection of lyrical poetry. His tomb, called the "Mecca" of Ghazna, is still visited by numerous pilgrims. 66 Sana'i's Hadikah still lacks a critical edition, for which 'Abdullatif al-Abbási's commentary (completed 1632 and preserved in a somewhat abridged form in several copies of the India Office Library) would form an excellent basis. See, on the poet's life and works, Ouseley, Biogr. Notices, pp. 184-187; Rieu's and Flügel's Catalogues, &c. SAN ANTONIO, a city of the United States, incorporated in 1873, the county-seat of Bexar (Bejar) county and the principal centre of western Texas, is situated in the fertile plain watered by the head-streams of the San Antonio river, which, after a course of 200 miles, falls into the Gulf of Mexico at Espiritu Santo Bay. It is an important junction for several of the Texan railways, lying on the main routes from the States to Mexico, 153 miles north of the frontier at Laredo. San Antonio proper, or the business part of the city, lies between the San Antonio and the San Pedro, and has been nearly all rebuilt since 1860. Chihuahua (formerly San Antonio de Valero), west of the San Pedro, is still almost exclusively Mexican; and Alamo, on somewhat higher ground to the east of the San Antonio, is largely inhabited by Germans. The total population of the city was in 1870 12,256 (1957 coloured) and 20,550 (3036) in 1880. Newspapers are published in English, German, and Spanish. Flour, beer, meatextract, ice, candles, aud soap are the local manufactures. On the site of Chihuahua a fort, San Fernando, was erected by the Spaniards in 1714, and four years later the mission of the Alamo (poplar tree) was established in its vicinity. Both fort and mission were afterwards transferred to the other side of the San Pedro, the fort taking the name of the mission, which was thus destined to become famous in the Texan war, when in 1836 a garrison attacked by a superior Mexican force perished rather than surrender. German immigration began about 1845. SANCHEZ. Three persons of this name once enjoyed considerable literary celebrity :-(1) FRANCISCO SANCHEZ (Sanctius) (1523-1601), successively professor of Greek and of rhetoric at Salamanca, whose Minerva, first printed at that town in 1587, was long the standard work on Latin grammar; (2) FRANCISCO SANCHEZ, a Portuguese physician of Jewish parentage, professor of philosophy and physic at Toulouse, where he died at the age of seventy in 1632, whose ingenious but sophistical writings (Quod nihil scitur, 1581) mark the high-water of reaction against tlie dogmatism of the traditional schools of his time; (3) THOMAS SANCHEZ of Cordova (1551-1610), Jesuit and casuist, whose treatise De Matrimonio (Genoa, 1592) is more notorious for its repulsive features than celebrated for its real learning and ability. ence. law was this: SANCTUARY is the Christian representative of the classical ASYLUM (q.v.), and was no doubt suggested in the first instance by the cities of refuge of the Levitical law. Originally every church or churchyard was a sanctuary for criminals. In England about thirty churches, from a real or pretended antiquity of the, privilege, acquired special reputation as sanctuaries, e.g., Westminster Abbey and Beverley Minster. "The precincts of the Abbey," says Dean Stanley, "were a vast cave of Adullam for all the distressed and discontented in the metropolis who desired, according to the phrase of the time, to take Westminster." The sanctuary seats at Hexham and Beverley and the sanctuary knocker at Durham are still in exist. The protection afforded by a sanctuary at common —a person accused of felony might fly for the safeguard of his life to sanctuary, and there before the coroner, within forty days, confess the felony and take an oath of abjuration entailing perpetual banishment into a foreign Christian country. The sanctuary being the privilege of Sak-Christian the church, it is not surprising to find that it did not extend to the crime of sacrilege, nor was it held to extend to high or petit treason. The law of abjuration and sanctuary was regulated by numerous and intricate statutes. A list of them will be found in Coke, Institutes, vol. iii. p. 115. Finally it was enacted by 21 Jac. I. c. 28, § 7, that no sanctuary or privilege of sanctuary should be admitted or allowed in any case. The privilege of sanctuary as protecting from civil process extended to certain places, parts or supposed parts of royal palaces, such as White Friars these places was abolished by 8 and 9 Will. III. c. 27, or Alsatia, the Savoy, and the Mint. The privilege of and 9 Geo. I. c. 28. (See Stephen, ist. of the Crim. Law, vol. i, c. xiii.). SANCHO I. (1154-1211) and SANCHO II. (12081248), kings of Portugal from 1185 and 1223 respectively. See PORTUGAL, vol. xix. p. 541-2. SANCHUNIATHON, (that is, inD, "the god Sakkun hath given") is the name of the pretended author of the Phoenician writings said to have been used by PHILO BYBLIUS (q.v.). See also PHŒNICIA, vol. xviii. p. 802. SAN CRISTOBAL DE LOS LLANOS, otherwise known as CIUDAD REAL, chief town of the Mexican state of Chiapas, stands in a fertile valley on the eastern slope of the central mountain range 450 miles east-south-east from the city of Mexico. It was founded in 1528 under the name of Villa Real, and received its present name in 1829. Its inhabitants, variously estimated as numbering from 8000 to 12,000, are chiefly employed in rearing cattle. Coarse woollen and cotton stuffs, and also common earthenware, are manufactured. SANCROFT, WILLIAM (1616-1693), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Fressingfield in Suffolk 30th January 1616, and entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in July 1634. He became M.A. in 1641 and fellow in 1642, but was ejected in 1649 for refusing to accept the "Engagement. He then remained abroad till the Restoration, after which he was chosen one of the university preachers, and in 1663 he was nominated to the deanery of York. In 1664 he was installed dean of St Paul's. In this situation he set himself with unwearied diligence to repair the cathedral, till the fire of London in 1666 necessitated the rebuilding of it, towards which he gave £1400. He also rebuilt the deanery, and improved its revenue. In 1668 he was admitted archdeacon of Canterbury upon the king's presentation, but he resigned the post in 1670. In 1677, being now prolocutor of the Convocation, he was unexpectedly advanced to the archbishopric of Canterbury. He attended Charles II. upon his deathbed, and "made to him a very weighty exhortation, in which he used a good degree of freedom." He wrote with his own hand the petition presented in 1687 against the reading of the Declaration of Indulgence, which was signed by himself and six of his suffragans. For this they were all committed to the Tower, but after a trial for misdemeanour they were acquitted. Upon the withdrawal of James II. he concurred with the Lords in a declaration to the prince of Orange for a free parliament, and due indulgence to the Protestant dissenters. But, when that prince and his consort were declared king and queen, he refused to take the oath to them, and was accordingly suspended and deprived. From 5th August 1691 till his death on Novem In Scotland religious sanctuaries were abolished at the Reformation. But the debtor still finds sanctuary from diligence in Holyrood House and its precincts. The sanctuary does not protect criminals, or even all debtors, c.g., not crown debtors or fraudulent bankrupts; and a meditatio fuge warrant may be executed within the sanctuary. After twenty-four hours' residence the debtor must him to further protection. Under the Act 1696, c. 5, insolvency enter his name in the record of the Abbey Court in order to entitle concurring with retreat to the sanctuary constitutes notour bankruptcy (seo Bell, Commentarics, vol. ii. p. 461). SAND, GEORGE. See DUDEVANT. SANDALWOOD, a fragrant wood obtained from various trees of the natural order Santalacea and from the genera Santalum and Fusanus. The principal commercial source of sandalwood is Santalum album, L., a native of India, but it is also yielded by S. Freycinetianum, Gaud., and S. pyrularium, A. Gray, in the Hawaiian Islands, S. Homei, Seem., and S. austro-caledonicum, Viell., in New Caledonia, and S. insulare, Bert., in Tahiti. The wood of S. latifolium, Benth., and also that of Fusanus spicatus, R. Br., have been exported from south-west Australia, and that of Eremophila Mitchelli, of the natural order Myoporineæ, from Queensland, but these have little odour and are chiefly used for cabinet work. Sandalwood is also said to be produced in Nossi-Bé, and has been imported into London from Zanzibar, and into Germany from Venezuela, but of the botanical source of these varieties little is at present known. The use of sandalwood dates as far back at least as the 5th century B.C., for the wood is mentioned under its Sanskrit name "chandana" in the Nirukta, the earliest extant Vedic commentary. It is still extensively used in India and China, wherever Buddhism prevails, being em ployed in funeral rites and religious ceremonies; compara- | tively poor people often spend as much as 50 rupecs on sandalwood for a single cremation. Until the middle of the 18th century India was the only source of sandalwood. The discovery of a sandalwood in the islands of the Pacific led to a considerable trade of a somewhat piratical nature, resulting in difficulties with the natives, often ending in bloodshed, the celebrated missionary John Williams, amongst others, having fallen a victim to an indiscriminate retaliation by the natives on white men visiting the islands. The loss of life in this trade was at one time even greater than in that of whaling, with which it ranked as one of the most adventurous of callings. About the year 1810 as much as 400,000 dollars is said to have been received annually for sandalwood by Kamehameha, king of Hawaii. The trees consequently have become almost extinct in all the well-known islands, except New Caledonia, where the wood is now cultivated. Sandalwood of inferior quality derived from Fusanus acuminatus was exported from south-west Australia in 1884 to the extent of 2620 tons, valued at an average of about £8 per ton, genuine sandalwood being worth in China from £12 to £40 per ton. In India sandalwood is largely used in the manufacture of boxes, fans, and other ornamental articles of inlaid work, and to a limited extent in medicine as a domestic remedy for all kinds of pains and aches. The oil is largely used as a perfume, few native Indian attars or essential oils being free from admixture with it. In the form of powder or paste the wood is employed in the pigments used by the Brahmans for their distinguishing caste-marks. During the last few years oil of sandalwood has largely replaced copaiba, both in the United Kingdom and on the Continent, in the treatment of various diseases of the mucous membrane. Three varieties are distinguished in trade-East-Indian, Macassar, and West-Indian. The firstnamed is derived from S. album, the second probably from another species of Santalum, and the third from a wood imported from Puerto Cabello in Venezuela. Bucida capitata, a Combretaceous plant, is known in the West Indies as sandalwood; but the odour of the wood as well as of the oil, which is quite distinct from that of the true sandalwood, has more resemblance to that of a Myroxylon. Inferior qualities of the oil are said to be adulterated in Germany with the oil of red cedar wood (Juniperus virginiana). In India sandalwood is produced in the dry tracts of country in Mysore and Coimbatore, north and north-west of the Nilgiri Hills, also farther eastward in the districts of Salem and North Arcot, where the tree grows from the sea-level up to an elevation of 3000 feet. In the first-named district the wood is a Government inonopoly and can only be felled by the proper officers, this privilege having been retained since 1770, when it was conferred by treaty with Hyder Ali on the East India Company. The Mysore sandalwood is shipped from Mangalore to the extent of about 700 tons annually, valued at £27,000. In the Madras Presidency-although there is now no monopoly-sandalwood, by the careful management of the forest department, has been made to yield an increasing revenue to the Government, as much as 547 tons having been furnished by the reserved forests in 1872-3. The tree is propagated by seeds, which, however, must be placed where they are intended to grow, since the seedlings will not bear transplantation, probably on account of deriving their nourishment parasitically by means of tuberous swellings attached to the roots of other plants. The trees are cut down when between eighteen and twenty-five years old, at which period they have attained their maturity, the trunks being then about one foot in diameter. The felling takes place at the end of the year, and the trunk is allowed to remain on the ground for several months, during which time the white ants eat away the valueless sapwood but leave the fragrant heartwood untouched. The heartwood is then sawn into billets about 2 or 2 feet long. These are afterwards more carefully trimmed at the forest depôts, and left to dry slowly in a close warehouse for some weeks, by which the odour is improved and the tendency of the wood to split obviated. An annual auction of the wood takes place, at which merchants from all parts of India congregate. The largest pieces are chiefly exported to China, the small pieces to Arabia; and those of medium size are retained for use in India. China imported into the treaty ports 66,237 piculs (of 1334 ib) of sandalwood in 1872. As much as 700 tons are annually in ported into Bombay from the Malabar coast, of which about Mangalore from the roots and chips, is also imported into Bombay 450 tons are again exported. The oil, which is distilled chiefly at to the extent of 12,000 Ib annually. Red Sandalwood, known also as Red Sanders Wood, is the product of a small Leguminous tree, Plcrocarpus santalinus, native of Southern India, Ceylon, and the Philippine Islands. The wood province it is regularly cultivated, coming into the market in is obtained principally from Madras, in certain parts of whieh the form of irregular billets of heartwood, A fresh surface of the wood has a rich deep red colour, which on or 4 feet in length. exposure, however, assumes a dark brownish tint. Under the influence of alkaline solutions, alcohol, or strong acetic acid, red sandalwood yields up to 16 per cent. of a resinoid body, santalin or santalic acid C1HO (?), which substance is the tinctorial principle of the wood. Santalin is quite insoluble in cold water; it neutralizes alkalies, and with them forms uncrystallizable salts. In its pure condition santalin forms minute prismatic crystals of a of colourless crystalline principles-santal, CH6O3, and pterocarpin, beautiful ruby colour. The wood also contains small proportions C17H1605-and of an amorphous body having the formula C17A1606 In medieval times red sandalwood possessed a high reputation in medicine, and it was valued as a colouring ingredient in many its principal application being in wool-dyeing and calico-printing. dishes. Now it is a little used as a colouring agent in pharmacy, Several other species of Plcrocarpus, notably P. indicus, contain the same dyeing principle and can be used as substitutes for red sandalwood. The barwood and camwood of the Guinea Coast of Africa, angolensis of De Candolle), called santal rouge d'Afrique by the presumably the produce of one tree, Baphia nitida (Pterocarpus French, are also in all respects closely allied to the red sandalwood of Oriental countries. See Seemann, Flora Vitiensis. pp. 210-215; Pharm. Journ. and Trans., 1885-86; Pharmacographia, 2d ed, p. 599; Dymock, Materia Medica of Western India, P. 617; Jour. Soc. Arts, 1875, p. 611; Seemann, Voyage of the "Herald," 1853, p. 83; Seemann, Jour. Botany, 1864, p. 218; Erskine, Islands of the W. Pacific, 1853, p. 143, 326, 390, and Appendix, p. 478, 486: Martin, Natives of the Tonga Islands, 1817, pp. 319-333; birdwood, Bombay Products, p. 306; Madras Jury Reports, 1857; Hawkes, Report on Oils of India, p. 38. SANDARACH is a resinous body obtained from the small Coniferous tree Callitris quadrivalvis, native of the north-west regions of Africa, and especially characteristic of the Atlas Mountains. The resin, which is procured as a natural exudation on the stems, and also obtained by making incisions in the bark of the trees, comes into commerce in the form of small round balls or elongated tears, transparent, and having a delicate yellow tinge. It is a little harder than mastic, for which it is sometimes substituted, and does not soften in the mouth like that resin; but, being very brittle, it breaks with a clean glassy fracture. Sandarach has a faintly bitter resinous taste, and a pleasant balsamic odour. It consists of a mixture of three distinct resins, the first readily soluble in alcohol, constituting 67 per cent. of the mass, while the second dissolves with more difficulty, and the third is soluble only in hot alcohol. Sandarach is imported chiefly from Mogador, and is an important ingredient in spirit varnishes. It is also used as incense, and by the Arabs medicinally as a remedy for diarrhoea. An analogous resin is procured in China from Callitris sinensis, and in South Australia, under the name of pine gum, from C. Reissii. SANDBACH, a town and urban sanitary district of Cheshire, is situated on the Trent and Mersey Canal, and on the London and North-Western Railway, at the junction for Northwich, 25 miles east-south-east of Chester and 5 north-east of Crewe. In the market-place are two ancient obelisks, dating, according to some, from the 7th century. The principal public buildings are the parish church of St Mary, in the Perpendicular style, with a tower rebuilt 1847-9, the grammar school, the public reading rooms, and the town-hall. Anciently the town was celebrated for its ale. The principal industry was formerly silk throwsting, but this is now discontinued, and the inhabitants are chiefly employed in the salt-works and alkali-works. The population of the urban sanitary district | who afterwards gained a name in their profession. Sandby (area 2694 acres) in 1871 was 5259, and in 1881 it was 5493. SAND-BLAST. The erosive influence of driven sand is turned to useful account for several industrial purposes by means of an apparatus devised, about 1870, by Mr B. C. Tilghman of Philadelphia. Tilghman's sand-blast consists of a contrivance for impelling, with graduated degrees of velocity, a jet or column of sand, by means of compressed air or steam, against the object or surface to be acted on. The apparatus is principally adapted for obscuring, engraving, and ornamenting glass, but according to the velocity with which the sand is impelled it may be used to carve deep patterns in granite, marble, and other hard stones, to bite into steel, &c., and even to cut and perforate holes through these and other most refractory materials. Sheets of glass 4 feet wide are obscured at the rate of 3 feet per minute, with a blast of air having a pressure of 1 ib per inch. With the aid of tough elastic stencils, patterns and letters are engraved on flashed glass, globes for lamps and gaslights are ornamented, druggists' bottles are lettered, &c.1 Driven with moderate velocity against a metal surface, the sand produces by its impact a fine uniform pitted appearance without removing the metal; and in this way it is used for "frosting plated goods. A strong blast is largely used for sharpening files, which, as they leave the cutter, have always a slight backward curve or "burr" on their cutting edges which blunts their biting effect. By directing a blast of very fine sand, mixed with water into a thin mud, with steam pressure of .70 b, at an angle against the back of the teeth, this burr is ground off, the shape of the teeth is improved, and the file is rendered very keen. While the use of steam for impelling the sand-blast is most simple and economical, many practical difficulties have hitherto been found in the way of its employment, and consequently for obtaining high pressure of air costly apparatus was required, thus limiting the applications of the agency. In 1884 Mr Mathewson patented an apparatus in which, by an ingenious exhaust arrangement, the impelling steam is swept away, leaving only cool, dry sand to strike against the object acted on; and the success of this device has already opened up a wider field for the employment of the sand-blast. SANDBY, PAUL (1725-1809), founder of the English school of water-colour painting, was descended from a branch of the Sandbys of Babworth, and was born at Nottingham in 1725. After commencing his artistic studies in London, in 1746 he was appointed by the duke of Cumberland draughtsman to the survey of the Highlands. In 1752 he quitted this post, and retired to Windsor, where he occupied himself with the production of watercolour drawings of scenery and picturesque architecture, which brought him under the notice of Sir Joseph Banks, who gave him his patronage, and subsequently commissioned him to bring out in aquatinta (a method of engrav. ing then peculiar to Sandby) forty-eight plates drawn during a tour in Wales. Sandby displayed considerable power as a caricaturist in his attempt to ridicule the opposition of Hogarth to the plan for creating a public academy for the arts. He was chosen a foundationmember of the Royal Academy in 1768, and the same year was appointed chief drawing-master to the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. He held this situation till 1799, and during that time he trained many artists 1 In 1875 inscriptions were cut by means of the blast on 150,000 tombstones of soldiers killed in the American Civil War. Cast-iron letters were fastened by shellac on the marble, the sand was driven by steam pressure of 90 Ib, and the stone was cut, in four minutes, to a depth of a quarter of an inch, leaving the letters in relief. will be best remembered, however, by his water-colour paintings. They are topographical in character, and, while they want the richness and brilliancy of modern watercolour, he nevertheless impressed upon them the originality of his mind. In his later pieces, in particular, decided progress is observable in richness and in harmony of tinting, and they also show a measure of poetic feeling, due, in great part, to the influence of Cozens. His etchings, such as the Cries of London and the illustrations to Ramsay's Gentle Shepherd, and his plates, such as those to Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, are both numerous and carefully executed. He died in London on the 9th November 1809. SANDEAU, LÉONARD SYLVAIN JULES (1811-1882), a French novelist of much grace and not a little power, was born at Aubusson (Creuse) on February 9, 1811. He made acquaintance as an art student with Madame Dudevant (George Sand), who had just taken to an unrestrained literary life at Paris. The intimacy did not last long, but it produced Rose et Blanche (1831), a novel written in common, and from it George Sand took the idea of the famous nom de guerre by which she is and always will be known. Sandeau's subsequent work showed that he could run alone, and for nearly fifty years he continued to produce novels and to collaborate in plays. His best works are Marianna (1839), Le Docteur Herbeau (1841), Catherine (1845), Mademoiselle de la Seiglière and Madeleine (1848), La Chasse au Roman (1849), Sacs et Parchemins (1851), La Maison de Penarvan (1858), La Roche aux Mouettes (1871). The famous play of Le Gendre de M. Poirier is only one of several which he wrote with Émile Angier,-the novelist usually contributing the story and the dramatist the theatrical working up. Meanwhile Sandeau, who had accepted the empire, but who never took any active part in politics, had been made conservateur of the Mazarin library in 1853, elected to the Academy in 1858, and next year appointed librarian of St Cloud. At the suppression of this latter office, after the fall of the empire, he was pensioned. He died on the 24th of April 1882. He was never a very popular novelist, judging by the sale of his works; and the peculiar quiet grace of his style, as well as his abstinence from sensational incident, and his refusal to pander to the French taste in fictitious morals, may be thought to have disqualified him for popularity. But his literary ability has always been recognized by competent judges. His skill in construction was very great; his character-drawing, though pure, is eminently free from feebleness and commonplace; and of one particular situation-the tragical clashing of aristocratic feeling with modern tendencies-he had an extraordinary mastery, which he showed without any mere repetition, but in many different studies. SANDEC. See NEU-SANDEO. SAND-EEL or SAND-LAUNCE. The fishes known under these names form a small isolated group (Ammodytina), distantly related to the cod-fishes. Their body is of an elongate-cylindrical shape, with the head terminating in a long conical snout, the projecting lower jaw forming the pointed end. A low long dorsal fin, in which no distinction between spines and rays can be observed, occupies nearly the whole length of the back, and a leng anal, composed of similar short and delicate rays, commences immediately behind the vent, which is placed about midway between the head and caudal fin. The caudal is forked and the pectorals are short. The total absence of ventral fins indicates the burrowing habits of these fishes. but generally the development of scales has only proceeded The scales, when present, are very small; to the formation of oblique folds of the integuments XXI. 33 The eyes are lateral and of moderate size; the dentition is quite rudimentary. Sand-eels are small littoral marine fishes, only one species attaining a length of 18 inches (Ammodytes lanceolatus). They live in shoals at various depths on a sandy bottom, and bury themselves in the sand on the slightest alarm. They are able to do this with the greatest ease and rapidity whilst the bottom is covered with water. Many of those which live close inshore are left by the receding tide buried in the sand, and are then frequently dug out from a depth of one or two feet. Other shoals live in deeper water; when they are surprised by fish of prey òr porpoises, they are frequently driven to the surface in such dense masses that numbers of them can be scooped out of the water with a bucket or hand-net. In fact, this used to be, in the Channel Islands, the common practice of the fishermen to provide themselves with bait. Some species descend to a depth of 100 fathoms and more; and the greater sand-eel is not rarely taken on the mackerel line far out at sea near the surface. Sand-eels are very rapacious, destroying a great quantity of fry and other small creatures, such as the lancelet (Branchiostoma), which lives in similar localities. They are excellent eating, and are much sought after for bait. Sand-eels are common in all suitable localities of the North Atlantic; a species scarcely distinct from the European common sand-launce occurs on the Pacific side of North America, another on the east coast of South Africa. On the British coasts three species are found:-the Greater Sand-Eel (Ammodytes lanceolatus), distinguished by a tooth-like bicuspid prominence on the vomer; the Common Sand-Launce (A. tobianus), from five to seven inches long, with unarmed vomer, even dorsal fin, and with the integuments folded; and the Southern Sand-Launce (A. siculus), with unarmed vomer, smooth skin, and with the margins of the dorsal and anal fins undulated. The last species is common in the Mediterranean, but local farther northwards. It has been found near the Shetlands at depths from 80 to 100 fathoms, and is generally distinguished from the common species by the fishermen of the Channel Islands, who have a tradition that it appeared suddenly on their coasts some fifty years ago. SANDEMANIANS. See GLAS, vol. x. p. 637. SANDERSON, ROBERT (1587-1663), bishop of Lincoln, and one of the worthies celebrated by Izaak Walton, was born at Rotherham, Yorkshire, in 1587. He was educated at the grammar school of his native town and at Lincoln College, Oxford, took orders in 1611, and was promoted successively to several benefices. On the recommendation of Laud he was appointed one of the royal chaplains in 1631, and as a preacher was a great favourite with the king. In 1642 Charles created him regius professor of divinity at Oxford, with a canonry of Christ Church annexed. But the civil war prevented him until 1646 from entering on the office; and in 1648 he was ejected by the visitors whom the parliament had commissioned. He recovered these preferments at the Restoration, and was promoted to the bishopric of Lincoln, but lived only two years to enjoy his new dignities, dying in his seventy-sixth year in 1663. His most celebrated work is his Cases of Conscience, deliberate judgments upon points of morality submitted to him. Some of these cases, notably that of Sabbath observance, and that of signing the "Engagement" to the Commonwealth, were printed surreptitiously during his lifetime, though drawn up in answer to private spiritual clients; and a collection, gradually enlarged in successive editions, was published after his death. They are extremely interesting specimens of English casuistry, distinguished not less by moral integrity than good sense, learning, and close, comprehensive, and subtle reasoning. His practice as a college lecturer in logic is better evidenced by these cases " than by his Compendium of Logic published in 1615. A complete edition of Sanderson's works was edited by Dr Jacobson in 1854 (Oxford Press). To this the reader may be referred for his sermons and his occasional tracts on public affairs The genus Syrrhaptes, though in general appearance resembling Pterocles, has a conformation of foot quite unique among birds, the three anterior toes being encased in a common "podotheca," which is clothed to the claws with hairy feathers, so as to look much like a fingerless glove. The hind toe is wanting. The two spocios of Syrrhaptes are S. tibetanus-the largest Sand-Grouse knowninhabiting the country whence its trivial name is derived, and S. paradoxus, ranging from Northern China across Central Asia to the confines of Europe, which it occa1 It seems to have been first used by Latham in 1783 (Synopsis, iv. p. 751) as the direct translation of the name Tetrao arenarius given by Pallas. search has failed to find it used until 1815. 3 Some more recent writers, recognizing the group as a distinct Order, have applied to it the name "Pterocletes," while another calls it Heteroclita. The former of these words is based on a grammatical misconception, while the use of the latter has long since been otberHuxley's term, Bonaparte's Pediophili (as above mentioned) may be wise preoccupied in zoology. If there be need to set aside Prof. accepted, and indeed has priority of all others. |