at the Sorbonne; and through Humbert, abbot of Prulli, | predicable (whence the followers of Occam were at first The last stage of Scholasticism preceding its dissolution is marked by the revival of Nominalism in a militant form, This doctrine is already to be found in Petrus Aureolus (ob. 1321), a Franciscan trained in the Scotist doctrine, and in William Durand of St Pourçain (ob. 1332), a Dominican who passed over from Thomism to his later position. But the name with which the Nominalism of the 14th century is historically associated is that William of the "Invincible Doctor," William of Occam (ob. 1347), of Occam. who, as the author of a doctrine which came to be almost universally accepted, received from his followers the title Venerabilis Inceptor. The hypostatizing of abstractions is the error against which Occam is continually fighting. His constantly recurring maxim-known as Occam's razor —is Entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem. The Realists, he considers, have greatly sinned against this maxim in their theory of a real universal or common element in all the individuals of a class. From one abstraction they are led to another, to solve the difficulties which are created by the realization of the first. Thus the great problem for the Realists is how to derive the individual from the universal. But the whole inquiry moves in a world of unrealities. Everything that exists, by the mere fact of its existence, is individual (Quaelibet res, eo ipso quod est, est haec res). It is absurd therefore to seek for a cause of the individuality of the thing other than the cause of the thing itself. The individual is the only reality, whether the question be of an individual thing in the external world or an individual state in the world of mind. It is not the individual which needs explanation but the universal. Occam reproaches the "modern Platonists" for perverting the Aristotelian doctrine by these speculations, and claims the authority. of Aristotle for his own Nominalistic doctrine. The universal is not anything really existing; it is a terminus or called Terminists). It is no more than a "mental concept signifying univocally several singulars." It is a natural sign representing these singulars, but it has no reality beyond that of the mental act by which it is produced and that of the singulars of which it is predicated. As regards the existence (if we may so speak) of the universal in mente, Occam indicates his preference, on the ground of simplicity, for the view which identifies the concept with the actus intelligendi ("une modalité passagère de l'âme," aз Hauréau expresses it), rather than for that which treats ideas as distinct entities within the mind. And in a similar spirit he explains the universalia ante rem as being, not substantial existences in God, but simply God's knowledge of things-a knowledge which is not of universals but of singulars, since these alone exist realiter. Such a doctrine, in the stress it lays upon the singular, the object of immediate perception, is evidently inspired by a spirit differing widely even from the moderate Realism of Thomas. It is a spirit which distrusts abstractions, which makes for direct observation, for inductive research. Occam, who is still a Scholastic, gives us the Scholastic justification of the spirit which had already taken hold upon Roger Bacon, and which was to enter upon its rights in the 15th and 16th centuries. Moreover, there is no denying that the new Nominalism not only represents the love of reality and the spirit of induction, but also contains in itself the germs of that empiricism and sensualism so frequently associated with the former tendencies. St Thomas had regarded the knowledge of the universal as an intellectual activity which might even be advanced in proof of the immortality of the soul. Occam, on the other hand, maintains in the spirit of Hobbes that the act of abstraction does not presuppose any activity of the understanding or will, but is a spontaneous secondary process by which the first act (perception) or the state it leaves behind (habitus derelictus ex primo actu= Hobbes's "decaying sense") is naturally followed, as soon as two or more similar representations are present. In another way also Occam heralds the dissolution of Scholasticism. The union of philosophy and theology is the mark of the Middle Ages, but in Occam their severance is complete. A pupil of Scotus, he carried his master's criticism farther, and denied that any theological doctrines were rationally demonstrable. Even the existence and unity of God were to be accepted as articles of faith. The Centiloquium Theologicum, which is devoted to this negative criticism and to showing the irrational consequences of many of the chief doctrines of the church, has often been cited as an example of thoroughgoing scepticism under a mask of solemn irony. But if that were so, it would still remain doubtful, as Erdmann remarks, whether the irony is directed against the church or against reason. On the whole, there is no reason to doubt Occam's honest adhesion to each of the two guides whose contrariety he laboured to display. None the less is the position in itself an untenable one and the parent of scepticism. The principle of the twofold nature of truth1 thus embodied in Occam's system was unquestionably adopted by many merely to cloak their theological unbelief; and, as has been said, it is significant of the internal dissolution of Scholasticism. Occam denied the title of a science to theology, emphasizing, like Scotus, its practical character. He also followed his master in laying stress on the arbitrary will of God as the foundation of morality. ple in Simon of Tournay about 1200. It was expressly censured by 1 This principle appeared occasionally at an earlier date, for examPope John XXI. in 1276. But only in the period following Ocean did it become a current doctrine. The "last of the Spread of Nominalism was at first met by the opposition of the Nominal church and the constituted authorities. In 1339 Occam's ism. treatises were put under a ban by the university of Paris, and in the following year Nominalism was solemnly condemned. Nevertheless the new doctrine spread on all hands: Dominicans like Armand de Beauvoir (ob. 1334) and Gregory of Rimini accepted it. It was taught in Paris by Albert of Saxony (about 1350-60) and Marsilius of Inghen (about 1364-77, afterwards at Heidelberg), as well as by Johannes Buridanus, who was rector of the university as early as 1327. We find, however, as late as 1473 the attempt made to bind all teachers in the university of Paris by oath to teach the doctrines of Realism; but this expiring effort was naturally ineffectual, and from 1481 onward even the show of obedience was no longer exacted. Pierre d'Ailly (1350-1425) and John Gerson (Jean Charlier de Gerson, 1363-1429), both chancellors of the university of Paris, and the former a cardinal of the church, are the chief figures among the later Nominalists. Both of them, however, besides their philosophical writings, are the authors of works of religious edification and mystical piety. They thus combine temporarily in their own persons what was no longer combined in the spirit of the time, or rather they satisfy by turns the claims of reason and faith. Both are agreed in placing repentance and faith far above philosophical knowledge. They belong indeed (Gerson in particular) to the history of mysticism rather than of Scholasticism, and the same may be said of another cardinal, Nicolaus of Cusa (1401-64), who is sometimes reckoned among the last of the Scholastics, but who has more affinity with Scotus Erigena than with any intervening teacher. The title "last of the Scholastics" is commonly given to Gabriel Biel, the summarizer of Occam's doctrine, who taught in Tübingen, and died in the year 1495. The title is not actually correct, and might be more fitly borne by Francis Suarez, who died in 1617. But after the beginning of the 15th century Scholasticism was divorced from the spirit of the time, and it is useless to follow its history further. As has been indicated in the introductory remarks, the end came both from within and from without. The harmony of reason and faith had given place to the doctrine of the dual nature of truth. While this sceptical thesis was embraced by philosophers who had lost their interest in religion, the spiritually minded sought their satisfaction more and more in a mysticism which frequently cast itself loose from ecclesiastical trammels. The 14th and 15th centuries were the great age of German mysticism, and it was not only in Germany that the tide set this way. Scholasticism had been the expression of a universal church and a common learned language. The university of Paris, with its scholars of all nations numbered by thousands, was a symbol of the intellectual unity of Christendom; and in the university of Paris, it may almost be said, Scholasticism was reared and flourished and died. But the different nations and tongues of modern Europe were now beginning to assert their individuality, and men's interests ceased to be predominatingly ecclesiastical. Scholasticism, therefore, which was in its essence ecclesiastical, had no longer a proper field for its activity. It was in a manner deprived of its accustomed subject-matter and died of inanition. Philosophy, as Hauréau finely says, was the passion of the 13th century; but in the 15th humanism, art, and the beginnings of science and of practical discovery were busy creating a new world, which was destined in due time to give birth to a new philosophy: Schol astics." Authorities. Besides the numerous works dealing with individual philosophers, the chief histories of Scholasticism are those of Hauréau (De la Philosophie Scolastique, 2 vols., 1850; revised and expanded in 1870 as Histoire de la Phil. Scol.), Kaulich (Geschichte d. schol. Philosophie) and Stöckl (Gesch. der Phil, des Singularités Historiques et Littéraires, 1861, and in R. L. Poole's Mittelalters). Supplementary details are given in Hauréau's Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought (1884). The accounts of medieval thought given by Ritter, Erdmann, and Ueberweg in their general histories of philosophy are exceedingly good. There are also notices of the leading systems in Milman's from the theological side in many works devoted to theology, and History of Latin Christianity; and the same writers are considered the history of dogma. Jourdain's Recherches Critiques sur l'Âge et Origine des Traductions Latines d'Aristote (Paris, 1819; 2d edition, 1843), Rousselot's Études sur la Philosophie dans le Moyen-Age (1840-42), Cousin's Introduction to his Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard (1836), and Prantl's Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande (4 vols., 1855-70) are invaluable aids in studying the history of medieval thought. (A. SE.). SCHOMBERG, FREDERICK ARMAND, DUKE OF (c. 1619-1690), marshal of France and English general, was descended from an old family of the Palatinate, and was born about 1619. He began his military career under Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, and after his death in 1659 entered the service of France, acquiring ultimately a reputation as a general second only to that of Turenne and the prince of Condé. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Charles II., who according to his own account "admitted him to great familiarities with him." In 1660 he was sent to Portugal, and on his way thither passed through England to concert with Charles measures for supporting that country in the contest with Spain. For his services to Portugal he was in 1668 made a grandee, and received a pension of £5000 a year. In 1673 he was invited by Charles to England, with the view of taking command of the army, but so strong was the general sentiment against the appointment as savouring of French influence that it was not carried into effect. He therefore again entered the service of France, and after his capture of Bellegarde, 29th July 1675, received the rank of marshal. In subsequent campaigns he continued to add to his reputation until the revocation of the edict of Nantes (22d October 1685) compelled him as a Protestant to quit his adopted country. Ultimately he was chosen commanderin-chief of the forces of the elector of Brandenburg, and with the elector's consent he joined the prince of Orange on his expedition to England in 1688, as second in command to the prince. The following year he was made a knight of the Garter, created successively baron, marquis, and duke, and received from the House of Commons a vote of £100,000. In August he was appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition to Ireland against James II. After capturing Carrickfergus he marched unopposed through a country desolated before him to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the enemy, he deemed it imprudent to risk a battle, and entrenching himself at Dundalk declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. Shortly afterwards pestilence broke out, and when he retired to winter quarters in Ulster his forces were in a more shattered condition than if they had sustained a severe defeat. At the same time competent authorities were agreed that the policy of masterly inactivity which he pursued was the only one open to him. In the spring he began the campaign with. the capture of Charlemont, but no advance southward was made until the arrival of William. At the Boyne (July 1, 1690) Schomberg gave his opinion against the determination of William to cross the river in face of the opposing army. In the battle he held command of the centre, and, while riding through the river without his cuirass to rally his men, was surrounded by a band of Irish horsemen and met instantaneous death. He was buried in St Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, where there is a monument to him, with a Latin inscription by Dean Swift, Schomberg was generally regarded in Eng land with great respect, and his manners and bearing rendered him universally popular. SCHÖNBEIN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1799-1868), from 1828 professor of chemistry at Basel, is known as the discoverer of OZONE (q.v.). icals. SCHÖNEBECK, a town of Prussian Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 9 miles above Magdeburg. It contains manufactories of chemicals, machinery, percussion caps, starch, white lead, and various other articles, but is chiefly noted for its extensive salt springs and works, which produce about 70,000 tons of salt per annum. Large beds of rock-salt also occur in the neighbourhood, in which shafts have been sunk to a depth of more than 1200 feet. There is a harbour on the Elbe here, and a brisk trade is carried on in grain and timber. In 1885 Schönebeck contained 13,316 inhabitants (including the adjoining communities of Salze, Elmen, and Frohse, about 20,000). SCHÖNEBERG, a so-called Prussian "village," in the province of Brandenburg, is now really a suburb of Berlin, which it adjoins on the south-west. It contains the royal botanic garden, a large maison de santé, and manufactories of paper collars, enamels, railway rolling-stock, and chemThe population in 1880 was 11,180. The foundation of Alt-Schöneberg is ascribed to Albert the Bear (12th century), while Neu-Schöneberg was founded by Frederick the Great in 1750 to accommodate some Bohemian weavers, exiled for their religion (cf. RIXDORF). SCHONGAUER, or SHOEN, MARTIN (1450-c. 1488), the most able engraver and painter of the early German school. His father was a goldsmith named Casper, a native of Augsburg, who had settled at Colmar, where the chief part of Martin's life was spent. Schongauer established at Colmar a very important school of engraving, out of which grew the "little masters" of the succeeding generation, and a large group of Nuremberg artists. painter, Schongauer was a pupil of the Flemish Roger Van der Weyden the Elder, and his rare existing pictures closely resemble, both in splendour of colour and exquisite minuteness of execution, the best works of contemporary art in Flanders. Among the very few paintings which can with certainty be attributed to him, the chief is a magnificent altarpiece in the church of St Martin, at Colmar, representing the Virgin and Child, crowned by Angels, with a background of roses-a work of the highest beauty, and large in scale, the figures being nearly life size. The Colmar Museum possesses eleven panels by his hand, and a small panel of David with Goliath's Head in the Munich Gallery is attributed to him. The miniature painting of the Death of the Virgin in the English National Gallery is probably the work of some pupil.2 In 1488 Schongauer died at Colmar, according to the register of St Martin's church. 3 As a The main work of Schongauer's life was the production of a large number of most highly finished and beautiful engravings, which were largely sold, not only in Germany, but also in Italy and even in England. In this way his influence was very widely extended. Vasari speaks of him with much enthusiasm, and says that Michelangelo copied one of his engravings-the Trial of St Anthony. Schongauer was known in Italy by the names "Bel 1 The date of Schongauer's birth is usually given wrongly as c. 1420; he was really born about thirty years later, and is mentioned by A. Dire: as being a young apprentice in 1470. His portrait in the Munich Pinakothek is now known to be a copy by Burgkmair, painted after 1510, from an original of 1483,-not 1453 as has been supposed. The date of Schongauer's death, 1499, written on the back of the panel by Burgkmair is obviously a blunder; see Hensler in Naumann's Archiv, 1867, p. 129, and Wurzbach, M. Schongauer, Vienna, 1880. These contradict the view of Goutzwiller, in his Martin Schongauer et son Ecole, Paris, 1875. Cf. Schnaase, "Gesch. M. Schongauers," in the Mittheil. der K. K. Commission, 1863, No. 7. 2 Another painting of the same subject in the Doria Falace in Rome (usually attributed to Dürer) is given to Schongauer by Crowe and Cavalcaselle, Flemish Painters, London,. 1872, p. 359; but the execution is not equal to Schongauer's wonderful touch. An interesting example of Schongauer's popularity in Italy is | Martino" and "Martino d'Anversa." His subjects are always religious; more than 130 prints from copper by his hand are still Most of his pupils' plates as well as his own are signed M+S. known, and about 100 more are the production of his bollega. Among the most beautiful of Schongauer's engravings are the sories of the Passion and the Death and Coronation of the Virgin, and the series of the Wise and Foolish Virgins; as much as £420 has been given for a fine state of the Coronation plate. All are remarkable for their miniature-like treatment, their brilliant touch, and their chromatic force. Some, such as the Death of the Virgin and the Adoration of the Magi, are richly-filled compositions of many figures, treated with much largeness of style in spite of their minute scale. Though not free from the mannerism of his age and country, Schongauer possessed a rare feeling for beauty and for dignity of pose; and in technical power over his graver and copper plate he has never been surpassed. The British Museum possesses a fiue collection of Schongauer's prints. Fine facsimiles of his engravings have been produced by Amand-Durand with text by Duplessis, Paris, 1881. SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE (1793–1864), a NorthAmerican traveller, ethnologist, and author, was born 28th March 1793 at Watervliet (now called Guilderland), Albany March 1793 at Watervliet (now called Guilderland), Albany county, New York, and died at Washington 10th December 1864. After studying chemistry and mineralogy at college he had several years' experience of their practical application, especially at a glass-factory of which his father was manager, and in 1817 published his Vitreology. In the of Missouri and Arkansas, and in 1819 he published his following year he was appointed to the Geological Survey View of the Lead Mines of Missouri. Soon after he accompanied General Cass as geologist in his expedition to the Lake Superior copper region, and evinced such capacity for good exploring work on the frontier that in 1823 he was He then married appointed "agent for Indian affairs." the granddaughter of an Indian chief; and during several years' official work near Lake Superior he acquired a vast social habits, and tribal institutions of the American natives. fund of accurate information as to the physique, language, From 1828 to 1832 Schoolcraft was an active member of the Michigan legislature, during the same period delivering lectures on the grammatical structure of the Indian language, which procured him the gold medal of the French Institute. In 1832 also, when on an embassy to some Indians, he ascertained the real source of the Mississippi to be Lake Itasca. Previous to 1832 he had published Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley, and in 1839 appeared his Algic Researches, containing "Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes," and also, notably, "The Myth of Hiawatha and other Oral Legends," probably the first occurrence of the name immortalized (in 1855) in Longfellow's poem. Schoolethnological writings, he composed a considerable quantity of craft's literary activity was indeed remarkable, since, besides his poetry and several minor prose works, especially Notes on the Iroquois (1848), Statistics of the Six Nations (1845), Scenes and Adventures in the Ozark Mountains (1853). His principal book, Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian Tribes of the United States, illustrated with 336 well-exécuted places from original drawings, was issued under the patronage of Congress in six quarto volumes, from 1851 to 1857. It is a vast mine of ethnological researches as to the Red Men of America, systematically arranged and fully, if not exhaustively, detailed,-describing not only their origin, history,. and antiquities, but the physical and mental "type," the tribal characteristics, the vocabulary and grammar, the religion and mythology. Schoolcraft's diplomatic work on the Indian frontier was important,- -more than sixteen millions of acres being added to the States' territory by means of treaties which he negotiated. of of working. 433 SCHOOLS OF HE word "school" as applied to painting1 is used with Meaning Tarious more or less comprehensive meanings. In "school." its widest sense it includes all the painters of one country, of every date, as, for example, "the Italian school." In its narrowest sense it denotes a group of painters who all worked under the influence of one man,-as, for example, "the school of Raphael." In a third sense it is applied to the painters of one city or province who for successive generations worked under some common local influence, and with some general, similarity in design, colour, or technique,-as, for example, "the Florentine school," "the Umbrian school." For many reasons the existence of well-defined schools of painting is now almost wholly a thing of the past, and the conditions under which the modern artist gains his education, finds his patrons, and carries out his work have little in common with those Medieval which were prevalent throughout the Middle Ages. Painters method in the old times were closely bound together as fellowmembers of a painters' guild, with its clearly defined set of rules and traditions; moreover, the universal system of apprenticeship, which compelled the young painter to work for a term of years in the bottega or studio of some established freedman of the guild, frequently caused the impress of the genius of one man to be very clearly stamped on a large number of pupils, who thus all picked up and frequently retained for life certain tricks of manner or peculiarities of method which often make it difficult to distinguish the authorship of a special painting.2 The strong similarity which often runs through the productions of several artists who had been fellow-pupils under the same master was largely increased by the fact that most popular painters, such as Botticelli or Perugino, turned out from their botteghe many pictures to which the master himself contributed little beyond the general design,-the actual execution being in part or even wholly the work of pupils or paid assistants. It was not beneath the dignity of a great painter to turn out works at different scales of prices to suit rich or poor, varying from the well-paid-for altarpiece given by some wealthy donor, which the master would paint wholly with his own hand, down to the humble bit of decorative work for the sides of a wedding cassone, which would be left entirely to the 'prentice hand of a pupil. In other cases the heads only in a picture would be by the master himself or possibly the whole of the principal figures, the background and accessories being left to assistants. The buyer sometimes stipulated in a carefully drawn up contract that the cartoon or design should be wholly the work of the master, and that he should himself transfer it on to the wall or panel. It will thus be seen how impossible it is always to decide whether a picture should be classed as a piece of b ja work or as a genuine production of a noted master; and this will explain the strange inequality of execution which is so striking in many of the works of the old masters, especially the Italians. Among the early Flemish and Dutch painters this method of painting does not appear to have been so largely practised, probably because they considered minute perfection of workmanship to be of paramount importance. 1. Italian. PAINTING and Pisa. century that one man of extraordinary talent-Giotto- FIG. 1.-Centre of a triptych, by Duccio di Buonir- sha- Siena. at Florence; chief among them were Simone di Martino, | the glories of the English National Gallery. Many exLippo Memmi, and especially Ambrogio Lorenzetti, a FIG. 3.-Fresco in the church of Santa Croce, Florence, by Giottothe Disciples of St Francis discovering the Stigmata on his Body. painter of both panels and large frescos, which show rich and noble imaginative power and much technical skill. It is important to note that Ambrogio and probably other painters of his time were, like the earlier Pisan Niccola, beginning to study the then rare examples of classical· sculpture. Ghiberti, in his Commentary, speaks with enthusiasm of the beauty of an antique statue FIG. 4.-Fresco over a door in the cloister of the convent of S. Marco at Florence, by Fra Angelico-Christ meeting St Domenic and which he knew only St Francis. from a drawing by Ambrogio Lorenzetti. In the second half of the 14th century Siena produced a large cellent masters were working at Siena throughout the 15th. century and even later; the last names of any real note are those of Peruzzi and Beccafumi. Sodoma, though he settled in Siena in 1501, does not belong to the school of Siena; his early life was passed at Milan, chiefly under the influence of Da Vinci. His talent was developed at Rome among the followers of Raphael. |