sided at Philadelphia. When the British withdrew from Charleston in 1782, he returned home and served in the legislature. In 1798 he was elected governor of South Carolina, but he died before his term had expired.

RUTLEDĜE, JOHN, Chief Justice of the United States, born at Charleston, S. C., in 1739, died there in 1800. After studying law at the Temple, London, he began its practice at Charleston in 1761. In 1765 he was a leading member of the StampAct Congress in New York, and in 1774 of the first Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Patrick Henry pronounced him "by far the greatest orator" in that assembly. He was chairman of the committee that framed a constitution for South Carolina in 1776, and became the first governor of that State. In 1784 he was made State chancellor. He was a member of the convention which framed the Federal Constitution, and of the State convention which ratified it. On July 1, 1795, he was appointed Chief Justice of the Middle States supreme court. He presided at the August term. But when the Senate met in December his mind had become diseased, and the Senate did not confirm his appointment.

RUVO IN APULIA, a city of Southern Italy, province of Bari, and twenty-two miles west of the city of that name. It is built upon a rising ground, contains many churches, and two museums, of ItaloGrecian vases, and is famous for its potteries. The staple produce is grain, pulse, and dried fruits. Population, 15,133.

RYAN, ABRAM JOSEPH, an American poet, born at Norfolk, Va., in 1839; died at Louisville, Ky., in 1886. He was ordained a Roman Catholic priest just as the war broke out, and soon afterwards became chaplain in the Confederate army, serving until Lee surrendered. He wrote The Conquered Banner as an expression of his devotion to the Southern cause. În 1865 he went to New Orleans, where he edited the "Star," a weekly Roman Catholic paper. From New Orleans he went to Knoxville, Tenn.; thence to Augusta, Ga.; thence to Mobile, Ala., where he had charge of a church for some years. In 1880, at Baltimore, he published a volume of his Poems, Patriotic, Religious, and Miscellaneous, which had a wide circulation. There also, he delivered his first lectures on "Modern Civilization." His poems, The Lost Cause; The Sword of Lee; The Flag of Erin, and Their Story Runneth Thus, have become very popular.

RYDBERG, ABRAHAM VICTOR, a Swedish author, born at Jönköping Smaland, Sweden, in 1829. He became literary editor of a daily paper at Gottenborg in 1855. In 1870 he was elected to the Swedish parliament from Gottenborg; and in 1884 he was made professor in the high-school at Stockholm. Rydberg published a number of romances, which have been translated into English, as The Freebooter of the Baltic; The Last Athenian; Adven

RYDER, ALBERT PINKHAM, an American artist, was born in New Bedford, Mass., March 19, 1847. Mr. Ryder was especially noted for his fine coloring. He studied under William E. Marshall, and for three years was abroad visiting the great art centers of the old world. He began exhibiting in the academy of design in 1873. Among his works are Curfew Hour, Farm Yard, and Phantom Ship.

RYDER, WILLIAM HENRY, a wealthy charitable clergyman, was born in Provincetown, Mass., July 13, 1822. He was entirely self-educated, and early began to preach the doctrine of universal salvation. When twenty-one years of age he became pastor of the First Universalist Church at Concord, N. H., and at Nashua he also occupied a pulpit for two years. Mr. Ryder traveled for a time, and finally, in 1860, he became pastor of St. Paul's Church in Chicago. He gave away more than half a million dollars to different charities, and among other bequests is one that provides for free lectures annually under the control of the first churches in the Universalist, Presbyterian and Congregational denominations and the mayor of Chicago," in aid of the moral and social welfare of the citizens of Chicago, upon a strict anti-sectarian basis." He died March 8, 1888.

RYLE, JOHN CHARLES, an English bishop, born at Macclesfield in 1816. He was ordained a priest of the English Church in 1841, when he became curate of Exbury. In 1844 he was made rector of Helmingham, and in 1861 he became vicar of Stradbroke. He soon became widely known as the writer of pithy, forcible tracts of decided evangelical sentiment. In 1880, Lord Beaconsfield called him to be bishop of the newly-founded diocese of Liverpool. Ryle has published Expository Thoughts on the Gospels (6 vols.); Plain Speaking; Christian Leaders a Hundred Years Ago; Bishops and Clergy of Other Days (1869); and Church-Reform Papers (1870). Bishop Ryle is an extreme Low Church

man.

RYOTWAR, a term applied to the revenue settlement which is made by the British officers in India with each actual cultivator of the soil for a given term, at a stipulated money rent, without the intervention of a third party.

RYSWICK, PEACE OF, a treaty concluded in 1697, at Ryswick, a Dutch village between Delft and The Hague, which was signed by France, England, Spain and Germany. It put an end to the sanguinary contest in which England had been engaged with France.

S

(ABAH, or BRITISH NORTH BORNEO, is all that

formally recognized by the charter of incorporation granted in November, 1881, as the territory of the British North Borneo Company. It has a coast-line of over 600 miles, and its area, still to a great extent unexplored, is estimated at 30,000 square miles.

The great central feature of Sabah is the magnificent mountain of Kinabalu (compare BORNEO) or Nabalu, built up of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks to a height of 13,698 feet, and dominating the whole northern part of the island, with all its profusion of lesser mountains and hills.

The climate of North Borneo is of course tropical, with a very equable temperature. The lowest minimum of the thermometer recorded in 1883 at Sandakan was 68.50 in December. The greatest interval without rain was eight days in March. The rainfall was 341⁄2 inches (157 in 1880) at Sandakan, 129 at Papar, and 120 at Kudat. In the interior it must often be much above these figures.

That North Borneo should prove rich in minerals was supposed probable from the character of some other parts of the island; but hitherto investigations have not in this matter proved very successful. Coal or lignite exists, but most frequently in thin seams and insignificant pockets; the petroleum springs cannot come into any true competition with those worked elsewhere; gold has been discovered (1885) in the Segama River and may prove a stimulus to immigration; iron-ores appear both abundant and at times productive; and there are indications of the existence of copper, antimony, tin and zinc ores. As yet the wealth of the country lies in its timber and jungle products (camphor and gutta-percha in great quantities), and in its edible nuts, guano, sago, sugar, tobacco, coffee, pepper and gambier. Tobacco is most successfully grown by the natives in the inland district of Mansalut, Kandassang, Koporingan, Gana-Gana, Tomborongo, Karnahan, Penusak, Tiong-Tuhan, etc.; and its cultivation has been taken up by several foreign companies. The birds'-nest caves of Gomanton (Gormanton) near the village of Malape on the Kinabatangan yield the government a revenue of from $6,000 to $7,000; and other caves of the same kind are still unworked. As the natives (Dusuns, Tagaas-Bajaus, Idaan, etc.,) are scattered, mostly in small villages, throughout the unexplored as well as the explored districts, their number can only be guessed, but it is usually stated at 150,000. Since the formation of the company there has been a steady immigration, especially of Chinese from Singapore.

In 1865 an American company started by Mr. Torrey obtained from the sultan of Brunei certain concessions of territory in North Borneo; but this enterprise proved a financial failure and the settlement formed on the Kimanis River broke up. The rights of the American company were bought up by the Austrian Baron von Overbeck and the English merchant Mr. Alfred Dent, who further obtained from the sultan of Brunei and the sultan of Sulu a series of charters conferring on them the sovereign authority in North Borneo under the titles of maharajah of Sabah, rajah of Gaya and Sandakan and Data Bandahara. In spite of the

opposition of Spain the English company organized by Mr. Dent succeeded in obtaining a charter of incorporation under act of Parliament, Nov. 1, 1881, as the British North Borneo Company," with right to acquire other interests in, over, or affecting the territories or property comprised in the several grants.

SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTE, a French Protestant theologian, born at Vallon in 1839. He studied theology in French and German universities. In 1868 he became professor of French literature in the normal school at Strasburg. In 1873 he removed to Paris, where he was appointed professor in the newly elected Protestant faculty of the University of Paris.

SACKETT'S HARBOR, a village and port of entry in Jefferson county, N. Y., on the south shore of Black River Bay, eight miles east of Lake Ontario and one hundred and seventy miles northwest of Albany, having a navy-yard, barracks, mills, etc. It is the best harbor on the lake for ship-building. In the war of 1812 it was an important port, where the frigate Superior, of sixty-six guns, was built in eighty days, and the Madison in forty-five days, from timber standing in the forest.

SACKVILLE (BARON SACKVILLE, of Knole, in the county of Kent), LIONEL SACKVILLE WEST, was born July 19, 1827, at Bourn Hall, Cambridgeshire, and is the fourth son of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, by his marriage with Elizabeth Sackville, daughter of John Frederick, 3rd Duke of Dorset. He was educated at home, was assistant precis writer to the Earl of Aberdeen, secretary of state for foreign affairs in 1845; entered the diplomatic service in 1847; served as attaché to Her Majesty's legations in Lisbon, Naples, Stuttgart, and Berlin, till 1858; as secretary of legation in Turin, Madrid and Berlin; and secretary of embassy in Paris till 1872; was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the Argentine Republic, 1873; transferred to Madrid, 1878; and to the United States 1881. He negotiated in conjunction with Sir James Hudson the commercial treaty with Sardinia, 1863; represented Her Majesty's government and that of Denmark at the conferences of Madrid on the affairs of Morocco, 1880; was minister plenipotentiary at the conference in Washington on the affairs of Samoa, 1887; and negotiated, in conjunction with Mr. Joseph Chamberlain and Sir Charles Tupper, the fisheries treaty of Washington, 1888. He received his passports from the United States Government in 1889, and was recalled to England, owing to an injudicious letter written to a Mr. Murchison, in which he stated that the election of a Democratic President would be received with favor in England. Murchison, notwithstanding this letter was marked "Private and Confidential," did not scruple to make use of it for political purposes.

SACO, a town of Maine. Population in 1890, 6,075. See Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 131.

SACRAMENTO, a city of the United States, the capital of California and the county-seat of Sacramento county, 135 miles by rail northeast of San Francisco on the east bank of the Sacramento river, which at this point receives the American river, and becomes navigable for large steamboats.

The State capitol, commenced in 1861 and completed at a cost of $2,500,000, is one of the finest buildings of its kind in the country; it stands in the heart of the city in the midst of a park of fifty acres. The other public buildings-the State printing office and armory, the agricultural hall, the Odd Fellows' hall, the hospital, the grammar school, etc. are comparatively unimportant. Besides the State library (36,000 volumes) there are two other public libraries in the city. The number of industrial establishments has recently been rapidly increasing; they comprise the extensive workshops of the Central Pacific Railroad, a woolen mill, carriage factories, plow factories, marble works, breweries, potteries, glue works, etc. The population was 6,820 in 1850, 13,785 in 1860, 16,283 in 1870, 21,420 in 1880, and 26,386 in 1890.

SAFE DEPOSIT COMPANIES, corporations for the safe keeping of valuable personal property, as money, bullion, stocks, bonds, jewelry, plate, etc. Such companies are in operation in many of the large cities of the United States. In the State of New York they are organized under a general law enacted in 1872. This law authorizes the formation of stock companies for the purpose of taking and receiving upon deposit as bailees, for safekeeping and storage, all kinds of valuable goods and papers, and guaranteeing their safety on such terms as may be agreed upon between them and their patrons. It also authorizes them to construct and let out safes, vaults and other receptacles necessary for their business purposes. The affairs of these companies are managed by trustees elected annually by the stockholders, the latter being jointly and severally liable for all debts equal to the par value of their stock. These corporations are under the supervision of the bank superintend ent. They have to make semi-annual reports to the latter, and are subjected to annual examinations by him. On Jan. 1, 1888, the combined capital of the safe deposit companies in the State of New York amounted to three millions of dollars. In most of the other States of the Union such companies are created by special legislative enactments, but their business is carried on after the same general plan as the business of the New York companies.

In all of these establishments strong fire-proof vaults are built. These are constructed of steel and iron plates welded together. Their interiors are fitted up with tiers of safes and deposit boxes of sizes suitable for all requirements. The whole is under the surveillance of armed watchmen both day and night. Minute personal descriptions of their patrons are entered into books kept for the purpose of identifying them. Private passwords are also given to the patrons and entered upon the books. On renting a safe the holder is furnished with the only key that will fit its lock, no two keys being alike.

SAFFORD, TRUMAN HENRY, astronomer and mathematician, born in Royalton, Vt., Jan. 6, 1836. He early attracted attention by his remarkable feats of calculation. Even as a child there was hardly a problem in figures given him that he could not mentally solve. He prepared an almanac when only nine years of age, and from that time, or at least after he had graduated, as he did, from Harvard, in 1854, he put his wonderful powers to practical use. He spent several years in the observatory at Hartford, and in 1865 was appointed professor of astronomy in the University of Chicago and director of the Dearborn Observatory. Professor Safford has made several catalogues of the stars, and also some maps of great value.

SAGASTA, SEÑOR PRAXEDES MATEO, a Spanish statesman, born in 1827 at Torrecilla de Cameros. From 1854 to 1856 he represented the town of Zamora in the Constituent Cortes. In 1856 he was compelled to seek shelter on French territory, having engaged in the revolutionary movement. He returned to his country and profession on an amnesty being proclaimed. He again conspired in 1866, and was again compelled to fly. He became minister of state in 1870, and in 1874 he was successively minister for foreign affairs, minister of the interior, president of the council, and prime minister 1881 to 1883. His ministry was followed by the premiership of Señor José Posado Herrera. Sagasta, on the resignation of the Canovas ministry at the death of King Alphonso, resumed office as the head of a new Liberal ministry; but reformed his cabinet, consequent on a crisis in 1888. He retired from office in 1890.

SAGINAW, capital of Saginaw county, Mich., lies on an elevated plateau about thirty feet above the water on the left bank of the Saginaw River, which falls into Saginaw Bay on Lake Huron, about eighteen miles lower down. It is a railway junction of some importance, one hundred miles northwest of Detroit, is connected with East Saginaw by a street railway, and can be reached by the largest vessels that ply on the lakes. The upper branches of the river are also available for boat traffic throughout a considerable district. Sawmills, planing-mills, and salt-works are the principal industrial establishments. The population was 7,460 in 1870, 10,525 in 1880, and 46,322 in 1890. The city charter dates from 1859, the first settlement from 1822. East Saginaw is included since 1890.

SAGINAW BAY, an arm of Lake Huron, extending southwest and forming an important indentation of the shore of Michigan. It is sixty miles long by thirty wide, with several fine harbors and picturesque islands. The water, like that of the whole lake, is of wonderful clearness and purity. The bay is named from the river Saginaw, which falls into it.

SAHARA RAILWAY. In 1890, M. Georges Rolland, a French engineer, addressed the Académie des Sciences on the subject of a trans-Sahara railway. The conclusion he arrived at was that the only practical and speedy method of opening up the Sahara was to construct a light railway of the Decauville type by the way of Ouargla and Amguid. Algeria was selected as the starting-point of a line, which was estimated to cost $17,500 a mile, and work has been begun under the authority of the government, and it is hoped to tap the Soudan and the regions watered by the Niger, immediately connecting them with the Mediterranean. department commission of the general council of Algiers has passed a resolution to the effect that, before any decision be come to as to the railway, the government order studies to be made in all the provinces of Algeria of the best routes of communication into the Soudan, and that caravans of natives be employed for the purpose.

ST. ALBANS, a township and village of the United States, the capital of Franklin county Vt., at the junction of several divisions of the Central Vermont Railroad. The village lies on an elevated plain about three miles east of Lake Champlain, and has its principal buildings arranged round a public park. Besides being the seat of the extensive workshops of the railroad company, St. Albans is the great cheese and butter market of the Eastern States. In the neighborhood, which is celebrated for the beauty of its scenery, are quarries of building stone and variegated marble. The population of the township was 1,814 in 1850, 3,637

in 1860, 7,014 in 1870, 7,193 in 1880, and 7,500 in 1890. Being only fourteen miles distant from the Canadian frontier, the village has more than once been the scene of political disturbances. In 1866, a band of 1,200 Fenians, on their return from a fruitless invasion of Canada, were disarmed there by the United States troops.

ST. AUGUSTINE, capital of St. John's county, Florida, has the distinction of being the oldest city in the United States built by Europeans, and has recently become a popular winter watering-place. By rail it is 36 miles southeast from Jacksonville. It stands on a narrow sandy peninsula, not more than 12 feet above the sea, formed by the Matanzas and Sebastian rivers, and is separated from the ocean by the northern end of Anastasia Island. The streets are very narrow, the principal thoroughfares being only 12 or 15 feet wide, and the balconies of the old houses often project so as almost to meet overhead. Along the sea-front for nearly a mile extends a granite-coped sea-wall (1837-43), which forms a fine promenade. At its northern end stands the old fort of San Marco (now Fort Marion), a well-preserved specimen of Spanish military architecture (finished 1756), with moat and outworks, walls 21 feet high, bastions at the corners, heavy casemates, dungeons, and subterranean passages. It is in the form of a trapezium, and covers about four acres. Like most of the Spanish buildings, it is constructed of coquina, a curious shelly conglomerate from Anastasia Island, which was easily quarried, but grew very hard on exposure to the atmosphere. The same material was used for paving the streets which were thus kept extremely clean and firm. At the southern end of the sea-wall is the old Franciscan monastery, now used as United States barracks. Of the Spanish wall which ran across the peninsula and defended the city on the north_side there only remains the so-called city gate. In the center of St. Augustine is the Plaza de la Constitucion, which takes its name from the monument in the middle, erected in 1812 in memory of the Liberal Spanish Constitution. On this square stand the cathedral (1793), with a Moorish belfry, the old governor's palace, now used as a post-office and public library, and an Episcopal church in modern Gothic. Other buildings of note in the town are the Convent of St. Mary and the Convent of the Sisters of St. Joseph. Modern villas and hotels have recently been erected in various parts. Palmetto straw goods are largely manufactured in St. Augustine, the palmetto being one of the characteristic features of the surrounding landscape, to which orange and lemon trees also contribute. The climate is remarkably equable, the mean temperature for winter being 580, and for the other seasons 680, 800, and 710 respectively. Frosts seldom occur, though that of 1835 killed many of the orange trees. In 1890 the total population of the city was 2,293, but in winter northern visitors swell the number to 7,000 or 8,000.

SAINT CHARLES, a city of the United States, the county-seat of Saint Charles county, Mo., is situated on the left or north bank of the Missouri twenty miles from its mouth. Besides one of the largest car factories in the United States, the industrial establishments of Saint Charles comprise tobacco factories, flour mills, hominy mills, creameries, woolen factories, and breweries. Pop. (1890), 6,500.

SAINT CLOUD, a city, the county-seat of Stearns county, Minn., on the Mississippi, about two miles below the mouth of the Sauk River. It has an extensive water-power, and is an important manufacturing town. Pop. in 1890, 6,532.

SAINT GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS, sculptor, born at Dublin, Ireland, in 1848. He was brought to New York when only six months old. In 1861 he began to draw at Cooper Institute, and in 1865-6 he was a student at the Academy of Design. In 1867 he went to Paris, where he studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts until 1870. Then he went to Rome, and there produced his first work, Hiawatha. In 1872 he returned to New York, where he has since resided. He has since executed a number of notable works. The most important of his statues are Admiral Farragut, in New York; Robert R. Randall, at Sailor's Snug Harbor, Staten Island, N. Y.; Abraham Lincoln, in Chicago; The Puritan, a statue of Samuel Chapin, in Springfield, Mass.; the portrait-busts of William M. Evarts; Theodore D. Woolsey, at Yale; and Gen. William T. Sherman (1888). His statues are noted for vigorous and realistic treatment and striking likeness to the originals.

SAINT GEORGE, a town, the county-seat of Washington county, Utah. It is the chief trade center in the rich valley of the Virgin River.

SAINT HELENA, a town of California, situated between two mountains about six miles north of San Francisco. It is surrounded by extensive vineyards and has a large trade in wine.

SAINT JOHN'S, a manufacturing town, the county-seat of Clinton county, Mich., twenty-two miles north of Lansing. It produces farming implements, carriages and flour. Population in 1890, 3,119.

SAINT JOSEPH, a manufacturing town of Michigan, at the mouth of the Saint Joseph, on Lake Michigan, twenty-two miles north of Niles. It is engaged in the production of lumber, machinery and flour, and in shipping fruit. Pop. in 1890, 3,733.

SAINT JOSEPH, capital of Buchanan county, Mo., on the right bank of the Missouri, 260 miles west-by-north of St. Louis. It is an important railway junction, possessing since 1873 a great road and railway bridge over the river constructed of iron; in the extent of its wholesale business it ranks as the third city in the State; and among its manufacturing establishments are flour mills, starch works, boot and shoe factories, pork-packing establishments, wagon factories, a distillery, etc. Besides a city hall and market house, it contains a court house (1875), an opera house, a State lunatic asylum (1874), an agricultural and mechanical exposition association, a Roman Catholic cathedral, and five public libraries. The population was 8,932 in 1860, 19,565 in 1870, 32,431 in 1880, and 52,324 in 1890.

ST. LOUIS. For general article on St. Louis see Britannica, Vol. XXI, p. 176. In 1890 there were in St. Louis 336.58 miles of improved streets; 76.44 miles of paved alleys; 311.09 miles of public and district sewers. The sewer system is most extensive, surface drainage being unknown in the city. The largest sewer, known as the Mill Creek, following the line of a natural drain, is twenty feet wide and fifteen feet high. The city of St. Louis is lighted every night in the year by electricity.

COMMERCE.-A few figures taken from the official records of the Merchants' Exchange for 1889, illustrate the commercial and material wealth of the city: Bank clearings for 1889, $987,522,629; balances, $163,461,257. Total foreign value of imports, $3,249,190. Duties paid, $1,212,702; United States internal revenue collections, $6,767,225, of which tobacco paid $3,957,173 and beer $1,487,604. There were manufactured during the year 1889 in the St. Louis district 42,019,474 pounds of tobacco, and 1,487,604 barrels of beer of thirty-two gallons each.

The total tonnage by steamboats and barges was