Amylurea Amylphenylamine Amyldiethylamine AMYLAMINE. [AMYL.] AMYLIC ALCOHOL. [AMYL.] AMYRINE. A resinous substance of unknown composition, extracted from the Canarium album, a tree growing in the Philippine islands. It is soluble in ether, from which it crystallises in lustrous satiny fibres. It is insoluble in water, soluble in hot absolute alcohol, and fuses at 345° Fah. ANA, a Latin termination of the neuter plural form. It appears in our language, divested of the sign of gender, number, and case, in such words as subterranean, metropolitan, Christian, Anglican, Ciceronian, Johnsonian. The Latin ana is the form appropriated to the neuter plural; and, therefore, Ciceroniana, for instance, would signify matters, or things of any sort, about or appertaining to Cicero. Cicero, in one of his epistles, mentions an ana (book vii. ch. 32), in which he complains of having all sorts of sayings attributed to him, even the Sextiana. admit to their communion. It is sometimes applied to designate that large body of Christians in our own and other Protestant countries, one of whose articles of belief is, that baptism ought only to be administered to adults, and who, accordingly, rebaptise those who seek to join them. But this application of the name is quite unwarranted, and one against which the community in question have always protested. They do not maintain the necessity of a new or second baptism, nor are those who have been born and brought up in their persuasion ever baptised twice. Others, who may have been previously baptised in infancy, are indeed baptised once again when they have grown up; but this is done on the principle that the former ceremony was no bapti-m at all. Baptists is the designation assumed by those who thus hold the doctrines of the non-validity of infant, and the necessity of adult, baptism; and they will accordingly be properly noticed under that head. In modern times this termination has been used to denote collections, either of remarks made by celebrated individuals in conversation, or of extracts from their note-books, letters, or even published works, or generally, of particulars respecting them. The earliest recorded modern and were certain manuscript collec-person could have more earnestly condemned their proceedings than tions in the possession of Guy Patin, in 1659, relating to Grotius, Nicholas Bourbon, and Gabriel Naudé, which he called Grotiana, Borboniana, and Naudeana. They were never published; those published as 'Naudeana' at Paris in 1701, being, as is generally acknowledged, a mere forgery. The first printed Ana was the collection of the colloquial remarks of Joseph Scaliger, now distinguished as the 'Scaligerana Secunda.' Two brothers, Jean and Nicholas de Vassan, having gone to study at Leyden, carried with them letters of recommendation from Casaubon to Scaliger, who was then one of the professors in that university. In consequence they were much at his house, and heard a great deal of his conversation, both in company and in private. Such of his observations upon all sorts of subjects as they considered to be most valuable or remarkable they wrote down till the collection at last formed a thick octavo volume. The book was published in 1666, with the title of Scaligeriana, sive Excerpta ex ore Josephi Scaligeri: per FF. PP. (contraction for Fratres Puteanos'). It happened, however, that the Vassans were not the only persons by whom Scaliger's conversations had been noted down. A physician of the name of François Vertunien, who attended the family of the MM. Chateigners de la Rochepozai, in whose house Scaliger resided, had been in the habit for seventeen years, namely, from 1575 to 1592, of keeping a record of the remarks that dropped from the lips of the great scholar. After his death they were published along with the former collection, in 1669, bearing the following title, 'Prima Scaligerana, nusquam antehac edita, cum Prefatione T. Fabri; quibus adjuncta et altera Scaligerana, quam antea emendatiora, cum notis cujusdam V.D. anonymi.' The next of the Ana which appeared was the 'Perroniana,' being notes (in French) of the conversations of Cardinal du Perron. It appeared in 1669. In the same year, the same person gave to the world another of these collections, the Thouana,' or remarks of the President de Thou. These works had extraordinary success; and the avidity with which they were read, produced a long succession of similar productions. It was in France, or at least in the French language, that most of the Ana appeared; and their popularity may be said to have lasted for fully half a century. One of the most valuable of this class of publications is the Menagiana,' a record of the conversations of Menage, who was a man of distinguished wit and talent, as well as a great scholar. He died in 1692, and the following year the Menagiana' appeared in a 12mo volume, both at Paris and Amsterdam. Of our English Ana, by far the most celebrated is the 'Walpoliana,' being a collection of the conversational remarks of Horace Walpole. There are many works, which, without bearing the characteristic title of such collections, belong in all other respects to the class of the 4na. One of the earliest and most celebrated of such works in modern times is the 'Colloquia,' or 'Table-Talk' of Luther, first published in German at Eisleben, in 1565. Another very celebrated work of this kind is the Table-Talk of John Selden,' which is stated to have been collected by Richard Milward, and was first published in 1689. Boswell's Life of Johnson' is undoubtedly the most remarkable work of this description in existence. ANABAPTISTS, a religious sect. The word, composed of two Greek terms, properly signifies those who baptise a second time, or insist upon the necessity of a second baptism in persons whom they We are not aware, indeed, that there has ever been a sect which maintained the necessity of two successive baptisms. On the other hand, it is certain that there were various sects in the earlier ages of the church which agreed with the modern Baptists in allowing no validity except to adult baptism. But the epithet Anabaptists appears to have been first employed to describe a body of fanatics who made their appearance in Germany soon after the commencement of the Reformation; and although it has been since frequently applied to other religious bodies as being alleged to have sprung from these, such a use of it can only be considered as one of those imputations with which different sects have been in the habit of assailing each other. The Anabaptists were, no doubt, the growth of the Reformationthough Protestant writers have laboured hard to make it appear that such was not the case. They were the ultra-radicals of the Reformation. Munzer, Stubner, and Storck, who were the first heads and apostles of the sect, had all been disciples of Luther; although no did that great reformer. They first began to preach their peculiar doctrines in the town of Wittenberg, in Saxony, in the year 1521. In 1525, their followers, composed almost exclusively of the lowest rabble, rose in a general rebellion against the established authorities throughout that province, Suabia, Thuringia, and Franconia. But this insur rection, which it is but fair to remark was partly of a political character, and occasioned by the oppression to which the peasantry were subjected, was soon defeated; and Munzer, himself, being taken, was put to death. The novel notions, however, which he had preached, spread as usual under persecution; and, some years afterwards, the mischief broke out again with new fury. In 1532 a numerous mob of these fanatics, conducted by John Matthias, a baker, of Haarlem, and John Boccoldt, a tailor, of Leyden, suddenly attacked the city of Münster during the night, and made themselves masters of the place. Their adherents immediately flocked thither from all quarters: and elated by their success, the congregated enthusiasts are stated to have given themselves up to extravagances far, exceeding anything they had before practised. Matthias named Münster Mount Zion, and proclaimed himself its king. Having madly undertaken, however, attended with only thirty followers, to attack and disperse the forces which came to recover the town, he perished, with all who accompanied him. John of Leyden now assumed the royal dignity, and under his conduct the multitude is said to have proceeded to wilder excesses than ever. The city, however, was at length recaptured by the army which the Bishop had brought up against it on the 24th of June 1535; and Boccoldt, having fallen into the hands of the victors, was soon after executed with the most terrific cruelties that hatred and revenge could dictate. The most extravagant tenets, as well as conduct, have been commonly ascribed to the Anabaptists of Münster; but the accounts of a proscribed sect by their enemies, it is to be remembered, are scarcely to be received with implicit credit. The doctrine which gave occasion to their distinctive appellation was one of the least remarkable of all their peculiar articles of belief, although they are said to have incul cated it with singular emphasis and vehemence, being in the habit of declaring that infant baptism was an invention of the devil. A much more pernicious principle which they are accused of having held, at least in so far as the peace of society was concerned, was that of the unwarrantableness of all civil government, and the emancipation of the faithful from subjection to either laws or taxes. They are also said to have maintained that, among the saints, all things ought to be in common. Their speculative theology is described as having been much the same with that which has been, and still is, patronised by various other denominations of enthusiasts. It rested principally on the notion that God made his will known to them individually by special inspirations, by way of enhancing the importance of which they are said to have expressed themselves with some degree almost of contempt or disparagement of the written word. Besides the internal impres sions which they called inspirations, they had dreams and visions in which they put much confidence; and some of them conceived themselves to have the gift of prophecy, which they were especially accustomed to exercise in predicting the speedy approach of the end of the world. Akin to these delusions was another favourite and fundamental dogma, that every true believer attained even in this life perfect freedom from sin. This position soon led them a great way. Finding that what had commonly been called sin could not be altogether extirpated from the bosoms even of the stoutest believers, they found it necessary, in order to save the doctrine, to declare that certain things which had hitherto been deemed contrary to the divine law, were not so at all, but in reality either indifferent or meritorious. It does not appear that they are accused of having gone quite to the extreme to which the principle in question has sometimes led, of maintaining generally that the belief of the sinner sanctified or neutralised his sin, or, in other words, that an act which would have been sinful in another became divested of its sinful character when committed by a believer. If all that is stated of them be true, indeed, they were under no necessity to resort to this device in order to give a loose to their inclinations, having put down in their list of universally permissible indulgences most of those things to which there is any violent disposition in the multitude of mankind. They condemned, for instance, with great severity, all ornamental attire, and some even went the length of objecting to clothing altogether. Boccoldt himself, in one of his fits of exaltation, solemnly promenaded the streets of Münster, stark naked. The love of dress, they said, was an artificial vanity, and as such hateful to God. But whatever, on the other hand, they held to be natural, they looked upon as harmless or commendable. Boccoldt is stated to have urged upon his followers, as in the highest degree conducive to their spiritual welfare, the practice of a liberal polygamy, and to have illustrated and enforced his doctrine by taking to himself no fewer than fourteen wives. Xenophon adds the march of the Greek auxiliaries from Ephesus to Sardes (about fifty miles) to the distance from Sardes to Cunaxa. The march may be considered as having terminated at Cotyora, as the army sailed from this place to Sinope, now Sinub: their troubles, however, continued till they reached Byzantium, now Constantinople, and even beyond that point. If we take the stadia of Xenophon at the rate of ten to a mile, an estimate which is above the truth, we find the whole distance marched to be 3465 English miles, which was accomplished in fifteen months, and a large part of it through an unknown mountainous and hostile country, and in an inclement season. The reader will find the expedition of the younger Cyrus discussed in the work of Major Rennel, and the various difficulties that occur in the narrative of Xenophon explained, as far as means of information will allow, with the Major's usual good sense and sagacity. [XENOPHON, in BIOG. DIV.] Anabasis is also the name given by Arrian, who was in all things an imitator of Xenophon, to his work, in seven books, in which he describes the campaigns of Alexander the Great. [ARRIAN, in the Division of BIOGRAPHY.] 32 ANACARDIC ACID. (CH,,O,?) A white crystalline aromatic acid contained in the shell of the acajou nut. ANEMIA, a diseased condition of the human body, in which is For a long time after the events which have been related, it was implied either a morbid condition of the blood, or a relative diminudangerous in Germany and other parts of the continent to profess an tion of some of its most important constituents. This disease is also adherence to the doctrine of adult baptism; those who held that tenet called oligonamia and spanæmia, terms which, like anæmia, express a being all most absurdly classed as belonging to the sect of the Ana- deficiency or paucity of the constituents of the blood. This state of the baptists of Münster. It has been commonly said, that to avoid the per- system is generally indicated by the excessive paleness of the face and secution to which they were subjected, the remains of these fanatics the whole surface of the body. The lips are pale. The conjunctiva is in course of time adopted various new denominations, some congrega- of an unnatural white, having a pearly lustre. The veins on the tions calling themselves Mennonites, after an eminent leader of the sect, surface are small, blue, and collapsed. These general symptoms are others Waterlandians, from the place of their principal church, others frequently attended with derangements of the nervous system. There Baptists, &c. But there is really no proof that any of the communi- is frequently violent pain in the head, and not unfrequently disordered ties bearing these names had, in their origin, any connection whatever sensation, as singing in the ears and flashings before the eyes. The with the Münster insurgents. For further information on the subject whole surface of the body is frequently preternaturally tender, the of the Münster Anabaptists, the reader may be directed to Mosheim's slightest touch causing the patient to start. The course of the spine ⚫ Ecclesiastical History,' century xvi. section iii., part ii., chapter iii. is often excessively tender, leading to the supposition that there is and century xvii., section ii., part ii., chapter v., where he will find the spinal irritation. The circulating system is deranged; palpitations of subject treated with great learning, though not in a spirit of much the heart come on after slight exertion. The pulse is mostly small, liberality or candour. The principal works relating to the Anabap-feeble, and quick, excited to rapid action on slight exertions. tists are all referred to in that dissertation. breathing is quickened by exertion, and there is generally lassitude and inability to take much exercise. This disease is accompanied with disturbances of the circulating system, which may be detected by means of the stethoscope. These are heard in the heart, arteries, and veins. The sound heard in the heart is a "bellows" murmur of varying intensity, and is heard most distinctly at the apex. This sound is not present in all cases of anæmia, nor is its occurrence diagnostic of anemia; but it is very important to know that it may be entirely dependent on the anæmic condition, and removed with it. The arterial murmurs are not frequently heard; they are synchronous with the beat of the pulse, and when present may even be recognised by the character of the pulse. The venous murmurs are much more common. They are continuous, and produce various buzzing, humming, musical, and singing murmurs. They are most frequently heard on the right side of the neck, at the junction of the external and internal jugular vein." (Aitken.) ANA'BASIS, the title of a Greek work, in seven books by Xenophon of Athens, which describes the circumstances of an expedition undertaken by the younger Cyrus, B.C. 401, against his brother, Artaxerxes, king of Persia. The expedition is remarkable as being the first long march of which we possess a detailed account, and also the oldest extant document which gave to Europeans any tolerably precise potion of the country watered by the Upper Tigris and Euphrates. The army of Cyrus contained a large body of Greek mercenaries, among whom Xenophon, at first, held no military rank he went apparently as a mere spectator, and only took command after the death of most of the generals. Cyrus set out from Sardes (now Sart), 38° 34′ N. lat., 28° E. long., and marched through Asia Minor to the passes in Mount Taurus, that lead into Cilicia. He next passed through Tarsus, along the Gulf of Scanderoon, and through the north part of Syria to the Euphrates, which he crossed at Thapsacus, about 35° 14′ N. lat. He then marched S.E. through Mesopotamia, crossing the Araxes (the Khabour); and finally lost his life in an engagement with his brother on the plains of Cunaxa (the site of which is unknown), about forty miles from Babylon (now Hillah), 32° 28′ N. lat., 44° 14′ E. long. From this point commenced the retreat, commonly known as the Betreat of the Ten Thousand." Instead of returning by the way which they came, it was determined to reach some of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea. Accordingly they crossed the Tigris, and advancing along the east bank of this river up the stream, they crossed in succession the Diala and other tributaries of the Tigris. They followed the course of this river, till they were stopped about 37° 20' N. lat. by the mountains pressing close on the river, and allowing no passage along its banks. They then crossed the mountains, and advanced probably nearly due north, but their course from this point is very uncertain. It is probable that the army passed to the west of Lake Van, and in its progress it must have crossed the Morad, or Eastern Euphrates, and that branch of the Araxes which is now the Faz, and is called by Xenophon the Phasis. After enduring much hardship from snow, want of food and clothing, and the opposition of the native tribes, the army at last reached Trapezus, now Trebizond, on the Black Sea, in 41° 2' N. lat., 39° 28' E. long. From Trapezus the army marched along the coast westwards for about 100 miles (direct distance) to Cotyora. The narrative of Xenophon contains a statement of the army's marches, with some few omissions, expressed in Persian parasangs, at the rate of thirty stadia to a parasang. The following are the distances given by him in round numbers : 66 The. The venous murmurs are seldom absent to a greater or less extent in anæmia. When the blood of anæmic persons is examined under the microscope a deficiency of blood globules is observed. Andral records a case in which there were but 30 parts of blood globules in 1000 of blood. The other constituents of the blood, as far as observations at present go, seem to suffer little alteration. The causes of anæmia are anything acting on the system by which the quantity of blood is diminished or the healthy development of the blood cells prevented. Thus, amongst the causes of this disease we may reckon: 1. Want of food. 2. Want of proper food. 3. Indiges tion or imperfect nutrition, from whatever cause. 4. Derangement of the liver, spleen, &c. 5. Hæmorrhages, as from hæmorrhoids, the stomach, lungs, wounds, &c. 6. All extensive discharges from wounds, ulcers, or mucous surfaces. A knowledge of the causes of anæmia at once suggests its treatment. Where it depends on a want of food altogether, or of proper food, then food of a proper kind must be supplied. Where improper food, as alcohol, produces imperfect assimilation, it must be withdrawn. Deficient nutritionary changes often come on as the result of impure air, and change from an impure to a pure air often acts most beneficially. In certain cases dependent on imperfect blood-cell formation great benefit results from the administration of iron. Cases are recorded in which, under an iron treatment, the blood-cells have increased from 32 to 95 in 1000. Other tonics may also be administered with advantage. In cases of anæmia in marshy districts quinine is of great service. ANESTHETICS, is the term applied to those agents, which, on being applied or administered to the human body, produce either a local or general insensibility. Such agents act more especially on certain parts of the nervous system, depriving it both of its power of communicating and perceiving impressions made upon its sensitive function. The state of anesthesia comes on in various forms of paralytic disease, and as such has been known and described by medical X writers. Anesthesia can also be produced by artificial means, as in those states of the nervous system brought on by what is called animal magnetism. In this state of the system the anaesthesia is sometimes so perfect that surgical operations have been performed on persons whilst in it perfectly unconsciously. This was known previous to the general introduction of anaesthetic agents during the performance of surgical operations generally. All narcotic medicines will produce conditions of anesthesia, in which surgical operations may be performed without pain. During the action of alcohol on the nervous system in drunkenness, operations have been performed without the knowledge of the patient. Although these circumstances have been generally known, it was not till about the year 1847 that any attempt was made to introduce anæsthetic agents as a means of alleviating pain during the performance of surgical operations. About this time, two gentlemen in America, Drs. Morton and Jackson, made experiments on human beings with the nitrous oxide (laughing gas), and found that a state of insensibility could be produced by its agency, under which operations could be performed. The effects of this gas in producing excitement of the nervous system had been made known by the experiments of Sir Humphry Davy, and its peculiar action was often exhibited in the lecture-room of the chemist. It was also known that sulphuric ether produced similar effects on the human system. The merit however of the application of these remedies to the production of insensibility during the performance of surgical operations is due to Drs. Morton and Jackson. Having discovered that ether was much preferable for this purpose to nitrous oxide, they made known the important fact, that under the influence of this agent an insensibility might be produced under which persons might undergo the most severe operations without pain, and might be restored from this condition without injury to their health. This announcement was speedily made known, and in the course of a few months the facts were realised in all parts of the world. In London the action of this agent was extensively tried, and realised the most sanguine expectations. The action of ether, and the best method of administering its vapour, was investigated by Dr. John Snow, who, in September 1849, published a work on the Inhalation of the Vapour of Ether.' After the success of the first experiments with ether, it was found that other agents similarly constituted acted in the same way upon the human system. This subject was investigated with great success in Edinburgh, and led to the discovery by Dr. Simpson of that city, that chloroform, a terchloride of formyle, acted more speedily and efficaciously than even ether. From this time chloroform became more generally used, and is now the substance which is generally employed for the production of artificial anesthesia. After this, Dr. Snow found that amnylene was capable of producing the same effects as chloroform. These agents appear to act entirely through the nervous system, and according to the time employed in their administration will be their effect on the nervous centres. The first part of the nervous system which appears to be affected is the brain, and a kind of intoxication comes on in which the patient is excited, the intellectual powers are deranged, and the person acts as though drunk. This effect is produced much more quickly by the vapours of the above-mentioned substances than by drinking alcohol; it also passes off much more rapidly. It was to this action more especially that the effects of the nitrous oxide and ether were confined previous to the discovery of their anaesthetic properties. If however the use of the vapour is persevered in, the effect extends from the brain to the cerebellum, and this organ loses the power of regulating the movements of the body. This effect on the body is also produced by the drinking of alcohol. As the vapour continues to act on the system, the next nervous centre affected is the spinal chord, and the functions of sensation and motion more immediately under the control of this part of the nervous system, are more or less affected. It is in this stage that consciousness and the powers of motion and sensation are entirely lost, and the individual is pronounced in a state of anesthesia. In this condition animal life is held in abeyance, and the body is insensible to all external agents. There is still however a sufficient amount of nervous power left to maintain the functions of organic life. The heart beats, the lungs perform their functions, and other actions essential to life are carried on. These functions are however under the influence of these anaesthetic agents, and should too large a dose of them be administered, they cease, and death ensues. This is one of the accidents to which the employment of these remedies is exposed, and against which the greatest precaution should be employed. Dr. Snow, who has practically studied the agency of these remedies more extensively than any other writer, divides the action of ether into five stages. "In the first degree the person experiences various changes of feeling, but still retains a correct consciousness of where he is, and what is occurring around him, and a capacity to direct his voluntary movements. In this stage the patient's feelings are generally agrecable, often highly so. In this stage it is not practicable to perform operations without a certain amount of pain. When, however, persons have experienced the more intense degrees of the anesthetic agent, they return to this stage, and are free from the pain of an operation, whilst their consciousness has sufficiently returned to enable them to know what is going on. In the second degree the mental functions may be exercised and voluntary actions performed, but in a disordered In this stage persons are often seized with a tendency to manner. laugh, sob, or scream. They throw themselves about, their actions are instinctive, and not under the direction of their intelligence. In this stage it is not advisable to perform operations, and many operators not carrying the action of the anaesthetic further than this stage have regarded it as useless. The patient may return to this stage from a further one, but it is most desirable that operations should not be performed in it. In the third degree there is no evidence of any mental function being exercised, consequently no voluntary motions occur, but muscular contractions in addition to those concerned in respiration may occur. There is sometimes great rigidity of the muscles, but more frequently this is not present. There is a tendency to moan, but not to utter any articulate sounds."-" If this degree is well ellished, and if the patient has been detained in it at the same point, by inhaling at intervals, or by inhaling dilute vapour, an operation may usually be performed without producing any other effect than a distortion of the features expressive of pain, and perhaps a slight moaning and an increased frequency of respiration, and in some instances a general rigidity of the muscular system." There is never any recollection of operations in this degree, even when symptoms of pain have been exhibited. In the fourth degree no movements are seen, except those of respiration, and they are incapable of being influenced by external impressions. All the muscles are relaxed, and the limbs hang down, or rest in any position in which they are supported. The breathing is deep, regular, and automatic, and there is much snoring. In this degree the patient always remains perfectly passive under every kind of operation. It lasts seldom more than two or three minutes after the inhalation is discontinued. The integrity of the functions of respiration and circulation is not impaired. The pulse is distinct, and however much deranged in previous stages, is little disturbed in this; the sensibility of the glottis and pharynx is maintained, and the patient swallows without difficulty. In the fifth degree the movements of respiration and circulation become impaired, and every care should be taken to prevent the action of the vapour from arriving at this point, as death may shortly ensue. With regard to the quantity of ether required, and the time necessary, Dr. Snow makes the following remarks: "If a middle-aged man, about the average size, is supplied with air mixed with vapour of ether in the proportion of 45 per cent. vapour to 55 per cent. air, and breathes it easily and without obstruction, he usually consumes about two drachms of ether per minute. It is not all absorbed, for a part is expired after passing no further than the trachea. At the end of the first minute he is usually in the first degree of etherisation; of the second minute in the second degree; of the third minute in the third degree; and at the end of four minutes, having inhaled an ounce of ether, in the fourth degree. If the inhalation is now discontinued, he commonly remains in this degree of etherisation for one or two minutes, passes gradually back into the third degree, which lasts for three or four minutes, at the end of which time he is in the second degree, which lasts about five minutes, to give place to a feeling of intoxication and exhilaration, which lasts for ten or fifteen minutes, or longer, before it entirely subsides.” Put The general effects of chloroform resemble closely those of ether. It is, however, a more potent remedy, and produces anesthesia more rapidly and certainly than ether. Hence it has been employed more generally. This substance was originally discovered by Liebig and Soubeiran in 1831, and its chemical nature was investigated by Dumas. He first pointed out that the liquid which had been called chloric ether, and chloride of carbon, was composed as follows, C2 H Cl, and called it chloroform. Liebig subsequently pointed out that it was a terchloride or perchloride of the base formyle. This substance is prepared, according to the Pharmacopoeia of the London College of Physicians, as follows: Take of chlorinated lime iv. lb.; rectified spirit Oss; water Ox; chloride of calcium broken into pieces 3j. the chlorinated lime first mixed with the water into a retort, and then add the spirit, so that the mixture may fill only a third part of the retort. It is then heated in a sand-bath, and as soon as ebullition begins, the heat is withdrawn. The liquid is then distilled into a receiver. A quart of water is then added to the distilled liquid and well shaken. The heavier portion which subsides is then separated, and the chloride of calcium added to it, and frequently shaken for an hour. The liquid, which is the chloroform, is again distilled from a glass retort into a glass receiver. It is a transparent colourless liquid, having a specific gravity of 148. It boils at 140° Fah., and the density of its vapour is 42. It has a fragrant ethereal apple-like odour, and a slightly acid sweet taste. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, but requires 2000 parts of water for its solution. It dissolves camphor, Indian-rubber, wax, and resins. It is not inflammable. This substance is sometimes given internally in doses of from five to ten minims, and acts as a stimulant sedative antispasmodic and anæsthetic. Administered in the form of vapour as an anesthetic, chloroform is much more powerful than ether. This effect seems to arise from its being much more sparingly soluble in the blood than ether. "The quantity of chloroform," says Dr. Snow, "required to induce insensi bility is less than one-tenth as much by measure as in the case of ether. Viewed in this manner, it is more than ten times as strong; but to ascertain their comparative physiological power, when inhaled in a similar manner, their volatility requires to be taken into account. In order to perceive the relative strength of these two medicines, we may suppose that the air which a patient breathes is saturated at 60°, the ordinary temperature of a dwelling room,-with one or other of the vapours, and see how much air he would have to breathe in either case in order to be narcotised to the third degree, the extent of insensibility usually required in a surgical operation. Thirty-six minims is about the average quantity of chloroform required to produce this degree of narcotism in the adult, and this would saturate 257 cubic inches of air at 60°, making it expand to nearly 300 cubic inches, which would be breathed in 12 ordinary respirations of 25 cubic inches each. The quantity of ether usually required to produce the same amount of insensibility in the adult, is about 7 fluid drachms; this would saturate 440 cubic inches of air at 60°, and increase its volume to rather more than 800 cubic inches, which would require 32 ordinary respirations to breathe it. We see, therefore, that 12 inspirations of air charged with vapour of chloroform are equal to 32 similar inspirations of air charged with vapour of ether, at the same temperature; and that, consequently, choloroform is nearly three times as strong as ether. In actual practice the difference in strength is generally greater than this, for ether abstracts much more caloric than chloroform during its evaporation, thereby reducing the temperature of the air passing over it, and the sponge or whatever contains it, and limiting its own evaporation, in a greater degree."- Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' No. 180. It is on account of its greater strength that a larger number of accidents have occurred with chloroform than with ether. At the same time, where great care is taken in its administration, there seems to be no reason why chloroform should not be employed for the production of anesthesia. The usual method of administering this agent is to sprinkle a few drops upon a handkerchief and apply it to the mouth and nostrils of the patient, in such a way that the patient may take air into the lungs which is saturated with the vapour of chloroform. During this operation care should be taken that a larger quantity of the vapour is not inhaled than will produce the fourth stage of anæsthesia. By removing the handkerchief from time to time the patient may be kept in the third or fourth stage, according as it seems desirable. Although the administering of chloroform in the handkerchief is undoubtedly the most simple and convenient plan, it appears to be much safer to use an instrument called an inhaler, by which the quantity administered can be regulated and controlled with certainty. Such an instrument was early introduced and employed by Dr. Snow, and the accidents which have occurred have certainly been fewer when this instrument has been employed than with the handkerchief. In the inhaler employed by Dr. Snow, the compartment containing the chloroform is surrounded with cold water, to limit the quantity taken up by the air, and the expiration valve of the face-piece is so adapted as to admit additional air to any extent to dilute the vapour still further. From an investigation of the fatal cases, and experiments upon animals, Dr. Snow has arrived at the following conclusions: 1. Chloroform vapour, if it be inhaled in large proportion with atmospheric air, destroys life by paralysing the heart. 2. În smaller proportions, but long continued, it produces death | apparently by the brain, and by interfering with the respiratory function. In such cases the heart is found to beat after the respiration has ceased. 3. Chloroform vapour, if it be blown upon the heart, paralyses it immediately. 4. Atmospheric air loaded with from 4 to 5, or even 6 per cent. of chloroform vapour may be safely administered, inasmuch as that mixture will not act directly upon the heart, but will give timely notice of its increasing effects in modifying the normal discharge of the functions of life. The average time occupied in producing insensibility is from three to four minutes. 5. The proportion of as much as from 8 to 10 per cent. of vapour of chloroform to atmospheric air is a dangerous mixture, as it suddenly charges the blood going into the heart with a poison capable of acting directly on that organ. In cases where an over-dose of chloroform has been administered, the only remedy which appears to offer a chance of relief is artificial respiration. Where the muscles of the tongue become relaxed, and this organ falls back over the glottis, it should be pulled forward till the patient revives. It might be desirable to open the jugular vein in order to relieve the distension of the right cavities of the heart. The cases in which ether was first employed, and in which chloroform is to be recommended as an anesthetic, are those in which operations producing pain are performed. There are no operations, from the extraction of a tooth to the capital operations of surgery, in which it may not be employed. At the same time it may always become a question whether it is worth while running the slight hazard of fatal effects for the sake of relieving a small amount of pain. Where chloroform is skilfully administered, there appears to be little or no hazard, but unfortunately it is not every one who is prepared to administer chloroform successfully. As a rule it may be stated, that it is not advisable for the surgeon who operates to administer the chloroform, and a competent assistant should always be employed to do this. Whatever may be the doubt in the minor operations of surgery, the beneficial effect of relieving pain upon the subsequent welfare of the patient in the capital operations of surgery, have led surgeons very generally to insist on its administration in these cases. It has now been shown, both by Dr. Simpson and Dr. Snow, that the fatal cases, after capital operations, more especially amputations, are fewer when chloroform has been administered, than when this or some other anesthetic has not been employed. Looking to these results, it would appear that the life saved by the use of chloroform has been much greater than that sacrificed by its careless administration. When in addition to this it is recollected how great an amount of suffering is prevented, there can be little doubt about the propriety of its administration. It has been supposed that certain states of the system are less favourable to the administration of chloroform than others, but Dr. Snow has pointed out that in these states of the system the pain of an operation would be as likely to act as injuriously as the chloroform. At the same time, it would appear that a certain number of the fatal cases have occurred in persons with diseased heart, and perhaps in these caution should be employed. Besides in operations with the knife, chloroform has been employed to facilitate the reduction of dislocations and of hernia. It has also been recommended in asthma, and as a means of procuring sleep in excessive watchfulness. It was first introduced by Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh, as a means of alleviating the pain attendant upon child-birth, and although it has been much opposed in these cases, it is at the present day very largely administered by the obstetric practitioners of Great Britain. In some of the more difficult cases it becomes an important aid to the accoucheur, and in all cases it diminishes the suffering without in any way interfering with the natural actions attendant upon this condition. The injurious effects attributed to chloroform are at most problematical, and the benefits so decided as to lead to its use wherever circumstances will permit. At the same time here, as in other cases, it is not desirable that the operator should administer the chloroform, and as the services of an assistant, or person competent to administer cannot always be procured, it is not likely to come into general use throughout the country. But when assistants can be found, there is no doubt that it is an alleviation of suffering that ought not to be discountenanced. From having experimented with various agents, Dr. Snow was induced to try the action of Amylene as an anesthetic on the human system. This substance is a colourless mobile fluid, having a specific gravity of 0.659. It is very volatile, and boils at 102°. Its composition is C10 H10. It is soluble in ten or eleven pints of water, and its odour is not disagreeable. The quantity of amylene required to produce anæsthesia is intermediate between that of chloroforin and ether. The quantity of amylene consumed in Dr. Snow's inhaler was at the rate of rather more than a fluid drachm in a minute, and in this way insensibility was produced in about three minutes. Although Dr. Snow successfully administered this remedy in several cases, he met with two fatal cases, and afterwards abandoned its use. Other substances are capable of producing anesthesia in the form of vapour, but none of these have been generally employed. (Snow, On the Inhalation of the Vapour of Ether, 1847; On Narcotism by the Inhalation of Vapours, Medical Gazette, 1848 to 1851; On Death from Chloroform, Lancet, 1856. Pereira, The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 1853. On Chloroform and other Anæsthetics, by Dr. Snow: this work was published in 1858, after the author's death) A'NAGRAM signifies a new word formed out of the letters of any given word by the process of writing them over again, as the term literally signifies, or placing them in a new order. Sometimes the anagrain is formed out of two or more words, and it may be itself always either one word or several. Some traces of this species of trifling have been detected in the writings of the ancients; but the taste for it does not seem to have spread much among the Greeks or Romans. The artifice appears to have first become fashionable in modern literature in the early part of the sixteenth century. Many authors, instead of putting their names on the title pages of their works, have, with an affectation of modesty, used the anagrams of their names. At one time also the anagram was made much use of by mathematicians in announcing discoveries, the credit or property of which they wished to secure to themselves without revealing the secret in which they consisted. Huyghens, Galileo, and Newton intimated several of their discoveries in this way. ANAKIM, or Benei-Anak, the sons of Anak, were a race descended from Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the three sons of Anak mentioned in Numbers xiii. 22. They inhabited the mountainous parts of southern Canaan, which afterwards formed part of the territory of the tribe of Judah. At the time of the invasion of that country by the Israelites, the Anakim possessed the towns of Anab, Hebron, Debir, and others. They were apparently above the common size of men. The spies sent by Joshua represented them as giants, to whom they were but as grasshoppers; and their mere appearance alarmed them when sent to examine their land. They were, however, eventually conquered by the Israelites under Caleb, and expelled, but a remnant took refuge with the Philistines. The total number could not have been large, as, though described as consisting of three tribes under separate kings, it would appear that all three of the sons were alive at the time of the conquest, and that Ahiman dwelt in Hebron. Sons of Anak, may, however, mean descendants; and in Numbers xiii. 23, the three chiefs are called children of Anak, which may imply a more remote relation than the filial one, as we say children of Israel for the whole race even at the present time. Hebron and Debir, moreover, are the Hebrew names of towns built on the sites of Kerjath-arba and Kirjath-sepher, the proper names of the Anakim towns. Anab has disappeared. ANALEPTICS, from a Greek verb which signifies to restore, comprise all the means, whether medicines, diet, or regimen, which are generally employed to restore the vigour of the system when it has fallen below the healthy standard, either from previous disease or any other cause. The term analeptic was formerly applied indiscriminately to any medicine which increased the powers of the system, whether it belonged to the class of stimulants or to the class of tonics; but as the progress of chemistry, anatomy, and physiology has enabled us to recognise a difference in the chemical composition of members of these two classes of medicinal agents, as well as in their manner of acting upon the human frame, we propose to limit the application of the word to the latter of them, or to tonics, reserving the consideration of the other till we come to the word stimulant. The following brief explanation of their effects will suffice to justify this proceeding. Stimulants act primarily on the nervous system, while tonics act primarily on the muscles and blood-vessels. Stimulants render the movements more frequent; tonics render them stronger. Stimulants, as we see with wine, exhaust the excitability; tonics, within a certain limit, maintain it. The action of the one is immediate and transitory, that of the other is slow and progressive, but more permanent, as is the case from cinchona bark, or food. To take an example from their effects on the stomach, excitants quicken the digestion, as we see with capsicum or cayenne pepper, which we take with articles difficult to digest, as salmon; while tonics render the digestion more perfect, as occurs when we use cinchona in convalescence from disease. Though the most perceptible effect of tonics be upon the muscular system, as it is by a display of its powers that we judge of strength, yet the whole system feels the benefit of them when appropriately administered. Every person knows that he can, at one time, lift a weight with ease which, at another time, he cannot move but with difficulty and exertion. In the former case, he is pronounced strong; in the latter, weak. The nature of the muscular fibre need not be discussed here; it is enough for us to remark, that to execute its functions properly, it must be in a certain state of tension, that it may be possessed of sufficient elasticity. A cord proceeding from a fixed point cannot influence a moveable body till it be drawn tight; so a muscle cannot raise a limb unless it possess a certain degree of tightness. The difference of the power of muscles varies greatly, according to the state of health or disease of the individual. If a muscle be taken from an animal in good health, it will not only bear a greater weight than the same muscle taken from an animal which has long been sick, but the former will be many days before it goes to decay and allows the weight to drop, while the latter will decay very speedily. To maintain the muscular fibres in this condition, a due supply of blood and of nervous energy is requisite. The sources of these are in a healthful and vigorous digestion, and as this rarely goes on when the system is much disordered, or suffering under general or considerable local disease, scarcely any morbid action, or even the natural exercise of mind or body, if pushed to an extreme, can continue without producing debility. Tonics are, sooner or later, required, seldom, indeed, to remove disease, but to obviate its effects, or that of the treatment it has been necessary to employ. The use of these requires the greatest circumspection, for, till we have removed the cause of the disease, they can rarely be of service; on the contrary, they often do harm. We have above pointed out the connection between the state of the digestive functions and the energy of the other functions, and it is important to bear in mind that anything loading and oppressing the stomach and bowels will lessen the tone of the system, diminish the disposition for exertion, and clog alike the action of mind and body. A judicious practitioner will here give, according to circumstances, an emetic or a purgative, and repeat this last for three or four days successively; in proportion as these act well, the languor and listlessness disappear, the mind resumes its wonted activity, for the cloud which had obscured the mental faculties is dissipated, and all again is energy, elasticity, and strength. An unskilful practitioner, and still more frequently the patient or his friends, would recommend some stimulant, a little brandy, or some bitters, under the influence of which all the symptoms become aggravated. It is a still worse case when the debility which occurs at the commencement of fevers, particularly ague and typhus, is so treated, though this is not so common an occurrence. A state of great irritation (morbid sensibility), or subacute inflammation of the mucous or inner membrane of the stomach, is a frequent condition of that organ with the inhabitants of towns, particularly among merchants and others engaged in extensive business which engrosses their whole attention, giving rise to much anxiety and leaving little time for exercise or food at proper times. The employment here of tonics, in the first instance, will only convert a manageable case into a difficult and serious one. It is, therefore, rather in the stage of convalescence from acute disease that tonics are required, and as a sequence to other medicines, than articles to be employed in the commencement, if we except some affections of the nervous system. We need not enter into details respecting the particular action of tonics upon each set of organs of the body, as it may be stated generally that they all, sooner or later, begin to execute their functions more vigorously, the stomach first feeling the beneficial effects. But this state of improved action follows their use (that is, when they are medicinal or material tonics) only for a time; for their continued employment leaves the stomach in a state of debility, perhaps greater than at first—a fact of which we should never lose sight. These remarks will, we trust, induce all to observe caution both in taking upon themselves to use the articles termed analeptics merely because they feel weak, without knowing what is the cause of the weakness, or in urging their friends to have recourse to them at the commencement of disease, or even when it is subsiding, as more relapses are occasioned by a premature employment of tonics, whether medicinal or dietetic, than by all other causes combined. It is impossible to enumerate here, and give directions for the use of, all the analeptics, comprising, as they do, medicines, food, and regimen. The medicines are either from the mineral or vegetable kingdoms; when the former, they are chiefly preparations of the metals, as the salts of iron and flowers of zinc (oxide of zinc); from the latter, they are invariably bitter substances, as cinchona bark, calumba, quassia, chamomile, &c. The analeptic means which fall under the head of regimen are, bathing, exercise, and the diversion of the mind. The employment of the medicines will be stated under the diseases to which they are suited; bathing will be treated of under that head: it is, therefore, only upon the last two means that we will make any remarks here. An examination of the human frame demonstrates that it was intended for motion, alternately with repose, and not for a state of absolute quiescence. Nor is the mind, which is furnished with so many faculties and provided with so many organs of sense, which serve to connect it with the external world, less calculated for active exertion. Any attempt to contravene the law of nature which enjoins a reasonable exercise of mind and body, brings a punishment upon the individual; the mind which he allows to be inactive loses the capacity for exertion, when required, and the body becomes a prey to disease in some shape or form. The action of the muscles is necessary to aid in circulating the blood and in completing the process of digestion, as well as to ensure a regular motion of the bowels. Where the muscles are not exercised, the blood, instead of reaching the surface and the extreme vessels, accumulates in the large internal trunks, leaving the skin dry and bloodless, as seen in young chlorotic females, who, instead of appearing buoyant with life in every limb, are as pale, and almost as inanimate, as a statue. Disorders of the nervous system, such as hysteria, likewise show themselves. These states can only be warded off by regular exercise. The rising generation would be much benefitted, if instruction in any branch of natural history formed a part of their education; young persons would then be furnished with motives for taking exercise out of doors to the manifest advantage of the figure of the body and the tendencies of the mind. Where older people have neglected exercise, it is more difficult to find means to induce them to resume its use; but some such device as the following may be tried: "Ogul, a voluptuary, who could be managed but with difficulty by his physician, on finding himself extremely ill from indolence and intemperance, requested advice: Eat a basilisk stewed in rose-water,' replied the physician. In vain did the slaves search for a basilisk, until they met with Zadig, who, approaching Ogul, exclaimed, Behold that which thou desirest! But, my lord, continued he, it is not to be caten; all its virtues must enter through thy pores; I have, therefore, inclosed it in a little ball, blown up, and covered with a fine skin; thou must strike this ball with all thy might, and I must strike it back again, for a considerable time, and by observing this regimen and taking no other drink than rose-water for a few days, thou wilt see and acknowledge the effect of my art. The first day Ogul was out of breath, and thought he should have died of fatigue; the second he was less fatigued, and slept better: in eight days he recovered all his strength; Zadig then said to him, 'There is no such thing in nature as a basilisk! but thou hast taken excrcise and been temperate, and hast, therefore, recovered thy health !'" The Indian-rubber, or caoutchouc balls, will be found as useful for those confined by the weather within doors during the winter months, as the ball of Zadig. It is possible to fatigue the body beyond a proper point, in which case repose becomes necessary; but this is a rare occurrence compared with the instances where the mind is stretched beyond its natural power to bear by the ambitious student, the covetous and care-worn merchant, or the adventurer in political life. If, in consequence of long-continued exertion, the balance of the mind be not already lost, abstraction from his books for the one, and a withdrawing from their pursuits for the others, with change of scene and occupation, must be enjoined; by doing this before it is too late, each may, in time, return to his usual station, to be useful in his sphere to himself and others, and may still be permitted to enjoy the greatest of earthly blessings, a sound mind in a healthy body. ANALOGY is the similarity of ratios or relations. A ratio, or relation, means that two objects (which are called the terms of the ratio) are considered together in reference either to some quality which they have in common, or to some manner in which one has affected the other. |
