circle, P the place of the planet, and Q P M a perpendicular to the axis Α Μ. Let c be the centre of the ellipse and circle. The planet moved quickest at A, and slowest at M. Conceive a fictitious planet z to move round the ellipse AP M, with the average motion of the real planet, so as, without varying its motion, to make the angle A 8 Z increase uniformly, and to describe the whole revolution in the same time as the real planet. Then, for the moment when the planet is at P, the angle A s P is called the true anomaly, A S z is called the mean anomaly, and a c q the eccentric anomaly. In speaking of the sun or the moon, it is the earth which is supposed to be at s, and the sun or moon at P. Also, in speaking of the satellites of Jupiter or Saturn, the planet is supposed to be at s, and the satellite at P. For a double star, one star is supposed to be at s, and the other to revolve round it. The determination of either two anomalies from the third, is a problem of considerable difficulty, the discussion of which may be found in any mathematical work on astronomy. ANTACIDS, from the Greek word anti, against, and the Latin word acidum, an acid, signify means used to correct acidity in the stomach. Though hydrochloric acid (formerly called muriatic acid, or spirit of salt) is present in a free state in the stomach during the process of healthy digestion, yet under particular circumstances it is apt to be generated in excess; so also lactic acid. Other acids, such as butyric, acetic, carbonic, &c., are also occasionally evolved in the stomach, probably from the fermentation of the articles, as vegetables and fruits of different kinds, by which the acetic acid is produced, or introduced ready formed, in wines or hard beer; and in certain vegetables, as sorrel, which contains oxalic acid. The most frequent source of acidity is that first mentioned, the secretion of acid by the vessels of the stomach. It is therefore dependent upon constitutional causes, or the state of the system generally. This is further proved by considering what kind of persons are most subject to it; these are individuals either naturally of a feeble and weak constitution, or who have weakened the stomach and system generally by excessive indulgence in good living, as it is termed, that is, too much animal food and wine, unaccompanied by exercise and other counteracting measures. Hence, we see these persons, or their children, and even their children's children, subject to gout or gravel, and stone in the bladder. As it has been ascertained (see the works of Mr. Murray Forbes, ' A Treatise on Gravel and Gout,' 1786; Wilson Philip, Marcet, Blane, Prout, and Majendie) that these painful diseases have their origin in the tendency of the stomach to the formation of an excess of acid, an inquiry into the causes of this and the circumstances under which it takes place, is of great importance as a means of preventing or counteracting When an excess of acid is introduced into the blood it occasions much irritation of the system generally, and the composition of the blood being different from its natural constitution, the secretions formed from it are unhealthy, proving a further source of disease. In consequence of the composition of the blood being altered, matters usually held in solution by it can no longer be kept in that state, but are precipitated; hence we have chalk stones, as they are termed, formed around the joints in gout, and calculi, or stones of different kinds, in the kidney or bladder.

them.

The signs or symptoms of acid being in excess are not in general limited to the stomach, but show themselves in several parts of the body. There is heartburn (cardialgia), often followed by eructation and rejection by the mouth of a fluid so extremely acid as to cause effervescence when it falls on a marble stone; the urine generally scanty and high coloured, from which, on standing, a sediment falls down; the skin dry, harsh, and often affected with eruptions of different kinds; and the mind of the patient fretful, and much given to take gloomy views of his health or circumstances,-in short, decidedly hypochondriacal.

The medicinal means of remedying this state are all alkaline, either the pure alkalies or some combination of them, such as solution of potash, or carbonates of soda, potash, magnesia, ammonia, or lime. Where the bowels are not disordered, but the urine denotes that the excess of acid mostly finds an outlet by that channel, the preparations of potash and soda are to be preferred. Where the bowels are much confined, magnesia or its preparations may be given in conjunction with rhubarb. Nothing is more hurtful than the frequent use of magnesia alone, it being apt to accumulate in the bowels. In the case of an individual much addicted to its use, a mass of it was found after death lodged in the large intestines, which weighed six pounds. If, on the other hand, the bowels be in a loose state, prepared chalk may be given with advantage, or lime-water, which is a very useful addition to milk where, from excess of acid, it disagrees, and hence most serviceable for weak children. Should the mind be much depressed, or general languor of the system exist, and no state of stomach be present forbidding its use, ammonia in some form may be exhibited.

Such are the medicines by which the effects of an excess of acid may be in some degree counteracted; but the most efficient means of preventing its formation consist in a strict attention to diet and regimen. Great moderation must be observed in the quantity as well as quality of the food and drink. The plainest and most digestible animal food should be taken once, or at the utmost twice a day, and sparingly. Hard-boiled puddings and dumplings must be avoided. Toast and water, or soda-water, or well-fermented beer, or cyder, are preferable

as drinks to wine or ardent spirits; the only one of which last that can be allowed is Hollands, and never but under particular circumstances, and with the sanction of a medical adviser.

Regular exercise, friction, and every means, such as flannel next the skin, which can keep up a free action of the skin, form a most important part of the prophylactic treatment.

ANTÆ. This is a term used by architects to designate the pierformed ends of a wall, as in the terminations of the lateral walls in a Greek temple, where a plain face returns on each side, having some relation in general proportion to the columns with which they compose. The antæ (for the word is used alike in the singular and in the plural) has a moulded and otherwise enriched cap or cornice, and generally a moulded base. In the simple Greek Doric style or order, both the cap and the base-moulding are of few parts, and the enrichments are few, and are confined to the mouldings, which may be either carved or painted; but in the more ornate Ionian or voluted style, both the cap and base of the antæ are in proportion deeper, are in a greater number of parts, and have extrinsic ornaments, besides the carving or painting of the mouldings of the cap, and the fluting or reeding of those of the base. The ante of the foliated or Corinthian style admits of still further enrichment, though the bold foliage and diagonal volutes of the capital of the column should never be placed on the square faces and sharp angles of the antæ. The moulded caps and bases of antæ are, in Greek works, generally continued along the flank walls so as to form the cornice and base of the whole wall, and not of the protruded faces of its ends alone. In Roman works, and in modern imitations of both, breaks are often made on the face of a wall with the caps and bases of anta, but more frequently with those of columns, and these are called pilasters, though indeed they are but an abuse of the Greek parastas, or antæ. In classical Greek, and in the best Roman works, antæ and pilasters are never either diminished or fluted. [TEMPLE.] ANTAGONIST MUSCLE, from avrl, against, and ȧywviçoμai, to strive-a muscle, the action of which is opposed to that of some other muscle. Muscles are the instruments by which, in the animal body, motion is effected. The object of each muscle is to produce some specific motion: among the various motions which are needed in the animal economy, it necessarily happens that some are directly opposite to others, and the muscles which accomplish these directly opposite movements are said to be with relation to each other antagonists. When any part of the body is placed between muscles which have an opposite or antagonising action, the result of the combined action of such muscles is to keep that part steadily in a certain position. The form and position of the human mouth, for example, are maintained, such as they are, in a state of health and during repose of the features, by a number of muscles, composing the lips and cheeks, the action of some of which is directly contrary to that of others: the natural figure and position of the mouth may, therefore, be truly said to be the result of the combined action of a number of antagonising muscles. The consequence of the disturbance of this antagonising action is to change the natural form and position of the mouth. This is shown by the effect of paralysis when it affects one side of the face. Paralysis is a discase depriving the muscle of its power of acting. In paralysis of one side of the face, the muscles of that side are deprived of their power of acting; and the consequence is, that the muscles of the other side, which retain their usual power, pull the mouth to their side, because they do not meet with the resistance which formerly opposed their effort to do this. Hence comes distortion of the mouth; and distortion is one of the most frequent and striking signs of apoplexy and paralysis, a sign dependent, it is obvious, on the loss of the antagonising power of the muscles of that part of the body in which the distortion takes place. Sometimes the elasticity of a part is put in opposition to a muscle, and becomes the antagonising power. The elasticity of the ribs, of the windpipe, of the arteries, may be so considered.

ANTALKALIES, from anti, against, and alkali, an alkali, are means of counteracting the presence of alkalies in the system. An alkaline condition of the system is not an unusual occurrence, and leads, when long continued or extreme, to very serious consequences. The worst of these is the formation of those calculi or stones in the bladder denominated phosphates. A tendency to this state exists in most weak individuals: hence, most commonly in children, old persons, and females. It may also be brought on by any cause which occasions either temporary or general debility. The prevalence of the depressing passions, as fear, anxiety, or any other which keeps up a nervous state of the system, the frequent and continued use of mercury, of powerful purgatives in sickly frames, injuries of the back, or the previous existence of a very acid state of the system, will occasionally give rise to an alkaline state of the system, which, when considerable, shows itself by great general debility, pale countenance, deranged state of the stomach and bowels, and excessive secretion of urine of a pale colour, which, on standing, makes a white deposit. To cure and prevent the return of such a state, the causes must, as far as possible, be removed. This is best done by diet, regimen, and appropriate medicines. The diet should be nourishing, mostly animal food, but taken in moderation; and where wine is used, light French or Rhenish should be preferred; hard water should be carefully avoided; saline purgatives, as Rochelle salts or seidlitz powders, and indeed all combinations of a vegetable acid with an alkaline base, such as the common saline draught, must be

abstained from. The irritability of the system is best lessened by opium and tonic medicines. These last furnish an excellent vehicle for the administration of acids, which are the most fitting medicines, either muriatic, nitric, or the citric acid, which is most grateful to children. The phosphate of iron is also a very useful medicine. Purgatives of an active kind should seldom be given; but when the stomach and bowels of children are much disordered, calomel and rhubarb taken frequently for some time are of much service, especially when the phosphate of iron is employed at the same time. Pure, invigorating air, and moderate exercise, are very beneficial, with relaxation from too great mental exertion, where this has preceded the disease. ANTARES, a name given to the bright star marked a in the constellation SCORPIO, which see. In the latitude of Greenwich, it has not more than 124° of altitude when on the meridian, where it is at midnight in the beginning of July. In 1846, this star was discovered to be double by Professor Mitchell, of Cincinnati, U.S. According to Mr. Dawes, the two constituent bodies were about 3"-4 apart in the year 1848. ANTECEDENT, a mathematical term used in proportion, meaning the first of the two terms of a ratio, in opposition to the consequent, or second term. Thus, in the continued proportion :

24:36:48:: 5 : 10, &c.

2, 3, 4, 5, &c., are antecedents; 4, 6, 8, 10, &c., are consequents. Antecedents may be made consequents, and consequents antecedents without altering the truth of the proportion. Thus, if abcd,

it is equally true that

bad: c.

ANTECEDENTIA. When a heavenly body moves contrary to the order of the signs of the zodiac-from Gemini to Taurus, from Taurus to Aries, &c.-it is said to move in antecedentia. When it moves according to the order of the signs, it is said to move in consequentia. ANTEFIXA, or ANTEFIXE, for this term is more frequently used in the plural, for both singular and plural, than otherwise. Antefixæ are blocks with vertical faces placed along the top of a cornice in ancient Greek and Roman buildings, to hide the ends of the covering or joint tiles, and their faces are generally carved with a flower, leaf, or other enrichment, to make them ornamental. The lions' heads and masks sometimes carved or fixed on the upper mouldings of cornices, which serve as spouts to carry off the water, are also called antefixæ. Several terra cotta antefixa of very beautiful design, from Rome, are in the British Museum. The flanks and rounded projection from the eastern end of the church of St. Pancras, in London, exhibit antefixa ranged over the cornice, but without the parts of which they are the fitting accompaniments. The Pall Mall and Carlton Gardens fronts of the Travellers' Club House, in London, show antefixa more judiciously composed with the roof, with which they form an ornament to, and help to enrich, the elevation.

ANTEPAGMENTA. This is an ancient term for the jambs of a door, or, as they are familiarly termed, the door-posts.

ANTHELMİNTICS, from two Greek words, signifying means used to expel worms from the intestinal canal, and to prevent their formation. Though the origin of worms in the intestines has been a subject of inquiry and controversy for many ages, we are far from having arrived at a satisfactory conclusion respecting it. While some have regarded them as the result of what is termed spontaneous or equivocal generation occurring in the intestines (see Aristot. Hist. Anim.' v. 19), others have maintained that they are introduced into the stomach from without, either along with our food, or in some other way, in so small a form as to be unobserved. Great difficulties attend either view of the question. If it is held that they come from without, the sources of them have never been seen, and cannot be pointed out. The opinion of their spontaneous generation is also rendered very improbable, both by the consideration that such an occurrence would be at variance with the present universal mode of production of all other animals, which invariably issue from parents similar to themselves, and by the fact that, however the worms may be at first produced, when once developed in the intestines, they are propagated like other animals of the same grade in the scale of organisation, namely, by parents of distinct sexes; and the ora or eggs which the female produces are both to be seen in the oviducts (see fig. 1, a), before they escape, and also are to be found among the contents of the intestines previous to their development as perfect worms. The settlement of this question would be interesting, and might prove useful in directing us in our prophylactic treatment. But as we cannot pretend to this in the present state of our knowledge, we must refrain from further discussion of the subject, and rather inquire into the circumstances and conditions favourable to their development and the means of counteracting them.

The causes of worms, and of the tendency to their formation, may be divided into, 1, general and local, referring to the residence; and, 2, special, referring to the individual infested by them, his constitution, habits, diet, &c.

Of the first division, the most general is climate. In certain countries worms prevail more than in others; and hence their frequency in Holland, where there is no want of personal cleanliness, or

attention to the food; but the constant moisture of the atmosphere, both producing general weakness, and acting hurtfully on the skin,the state of which, owing to the sympathy existing between it and the digestive organs, influences greatly the health of the body,-farther predisposes to their development. We see the same causes operate in producing the rot in sheep, which is always accompanied by the presence of a worm (the Distoma hepaticum or fluke) in the liver; and we shall find the same means prove successful in preventing their formation in both cases: as only sheep feeding in wet pastures, such as marshes, are subject to the rot.

Dwelling in an impure air, where there is not sufficient ventilation, prepares the body for becoming the seat of worms, and hence their greater frequency among the crowded inhabitants of towns than among the peasantry.

The effect of these general causes is to produce a weak state of the system, the existence of which, however occasioned, seems the first requisite for the development of worms. When in addition to these there are other causes which operate only on individuals, we perceive the reason why one person becomes subject to worms, from which another person continues exempt. This naturally conducts to the second set of causes, connected with the individual affected by these parasites. These we shall find to be a constitution, either hereditarily weak, or debilitated by sedentary occupations and improper diet. Accordingly, those most subject to worms are females and children, especially of a scrophulous habit. In these last there exists very commonly weakness of the digestive organs, along with an immoderate craving for food, which injudicious parents and nurses are too apt to indulge-regarding it as the sign of a good appetite-by which more aliment is introduced into the stomach than it can conveniently digest, and consequently the stomach and bowels become clogged, both by the undigested matters remaining in them, and also by the unhealthy secretions, which, under such circumstances, are invariably poured into them. The articles given to satisfy this craving, which generally shows itself between meals, are almost always those which experience has shown to be the most calculated to favour the production of worms, namely, articles of too farinaceous a kind, as biscuits, cakes of different sorts, or bread and butter, or cheese: for milk, and the preparations of it, which we have just mentioned, seem to dispose to the formation of worms more decidedly than anything else.

The presence of worms in the intestines cannot always be determined by any one, or even by the concurrence of many symptoms, for enormous tænias (tape worms) have sometimes been passed, of the existence of which not the least suspicion was entertained by the individual; nor was any derangement of the health observable. But we are justified in suspecting them to be present where the appearance and expression of the countenance are much altered from the natural state; when it is of a pale, somewhat leaden, hue, subject to sudden flushings, often limited to one side of the face, where the eyes have lost their brightness, the pupil is enlarged, and the lower eyelid surrounded by a livid circle. In addition to these symptoms, the nose is often swollen, and affected by an intolerable itching, or frequently bleeding; there are pains in the head, with ringing of the ears; the tongue is coated, and the breath disagreeable. The appetite is very variable, sometimes there is none, at other times it is ravenous: there is often a feeling of sickness and a disposition to vomit; occasionally there are violent cholics, the bowels irregular, seldom costive, more frequently loose; the stools slimy, sometimes tinged with blood; the belly swollen and hard, while there is generally a wasting of the rest of the body; the urine is rarely clear, often of a milky appearance. The sleep is disturbed, and the child grinds the teeth; during the day, it is indolent, and very variable in temper.

It is necessary to be thus minute in stating the symptoms of worms, as, sometimes on very slight grounds, individuals have been subjected to a long and severe course of treatment for worms, when none existed; while, too often, they are allowed to commit their ravages unmolested, and to plunge the unhappy victim into a state of great misery and suffering, and even lead to a fatal termination. We are not willing to attach full credit to all the horrible consequences attributed to worms, but that they often produce many serious diseases, and aggravate others, is certain.

The number of different kinds of worms infesting the stomach or intestines of man is not very great, but they propagate their species often with astonishing rapidity. We shall enumerate the most common sorts, following the nomenclature of Bremser, ('Lebende Würmer in lebenden Menschen.' Wien, 1819; also translated into French, by Dr. Grundler, Paris, 1828. Traité des Vers Intestinaux.') The Trichocephalus dispar (or long thread worm), found in the upper part of the large intestines (or Cacum); Oxyuris vermicularis (Ascaris vermicularis, the maw, or thread worm), which inhabits the rectum, or lowest intestine; Ascaris lumbricoides (the large round worm), mostly found in the small intestines; Bothriocephalus latus (Tania lata, the broad tape-worm), found in the small intestines (principally of the inhabitants of Russia, Poland, and Switzerland, seldom met with in Britain); Tenia solium (the tape-worm), in the small intestines, generally alone, but occasionally three or four together. the Distoma hepaticum (or fluke), is sometimes found in the liver and gall-bladder of but more commonly of sheep, goats, &c.

man,

The worms which are occasionally found in other parts of the body

are not under the influence of the medicines termed anthelmintics, and we therefore leave them unnoticed here.

To assist us in distinguishing the particular kind of worm present in the intestinal canal, and to regulate thereby our treatment, it is proper to mention that the maw, or thread worm, and large round worm, are most common in youth, and the tape-worm in adult age. From what has been said above, the principles of treatment may readily be deduced: these are, to strengthen the individual, and weaken the worms, which facilitates their expulsion, and diminishes the tendency to their formation. This last is a point of great practical importance; for not only is it of little use to expel worms already existing in the intestines, unless we remove the tendency or disposition to their production, but, very frequently, many of the articles inconsiderately administered (which however are regarded as valuable anthelmintics, because, by their operation, they bring away worms), often do more harm to the individual who takes them than to the worms. It is clear that all articles which by their sharp angles merely irritate the worms must do much more injury to the inner coat of the stomach and intestines, and cannot possibly be introduced or insinuated between the mouths of the animals and the surface to which they are attached. The woodcut (fig. 4) shows by what a number of hooks the tape-worm attaches itself to the gut. When we see these, need we wonder at the difficulty of expelling this formidable and most determined parasite ?

The means employed to effect the ends proposed are very numerous, but reducible to three heads: namely, those which by increasing the peristaltic motion of the intestines, displace the worms, and often occasion their expulsion, as purgative medicines of different kinds; those which tend to increase the strength of the stomach and intestines, and system generally, as tonics, or analeptics; and lastly, those which are conceived to act in an especial manner on the worms, dislodging, weakening, or killing them-or anthelmintics, in the strict sense of the word. Our means must be varied, for not only are the different kinds of worms limited to different parts of the intestinal canal, and the species of worms infesting it different at different periods of life, but particular substances are found to be more efficacious against one species than against others.

As a part of the general treatment of worms, purgatives are indispensable, and those should be selected which bring away the greatest quantity of slime; but the frequent repetition of such is inexpedient. Calomel with jalap, or scammony may be given, with the interval of two days between each dose, two or three times, followed by tartrate of antimony in very small doses for a week this may be succeeded by aloes, with antimonial powder, which last being laid aside, preparations of iron alone, or with gentian and canella, may be united with the aloes. This plan may be pursued, whatever be the kind of worm supposed to be present, being merely intended to improve the general health of the patient. When the strength is somewhat increased, cold, which is very pernicious to the worms, may be added to our means of cure, and employed in various ways. Large quantities of cold water, rendered still colder by dissolving in it, immediately before drinking, a quantity of table-salt, or muriate of soda, may be taken. Sea-water may also be drunk with great benefit.

Among our purgative means we must not omit to mention sulphate of potass and rhubarb, to which if there be nervous symptoms present, such as a tendency to epilepsy or hysteria, valerian may be advantageously added. Different mineral waters are of great service, particularly in the treatment of the maw-worm. These both remove the slime in which the worms nestle, and diminish the tendency to its formation. With this view we may have recourse to the waters of Cheltenham, and above all, to the sulphureous springs of Harrogate, followed by chalybeates there, or at Tunbridge.

The means of strengthening the digestive organs, consist of tonic and astringent medicines, both vegetable and mineral. Vegetable bitters are doubly advantageous, ince they both strengthen the stomach, and prove direct poisons to the worms: of these, the best are chamomile tea, and infusion of quassia, or gentian, to which muriatic acid, or tincture of muriate of iron may be added; for children the tartrite of iron, being almost tasteless, is advisable. The utility of vegetable bitters is proved by the fact, that wherever the Menyanthes trifoliata (bog-bean), or the tormentil, grows, however damp the pastures may be, the rot never infests the sheep. A similar immunity from the rot is generally enjoyed by sheep fed on the salt marshes, or where salt is regularly mixed with their food. (See 'Reports of Lord Somerville.') The omission of a proper quantity of salt with our food favours the engendering of worms. The great tendency to the formation of worms in Holland has been mentioned, and when the "ancient laws of that country ordained men to be kept on bread alone, unmixed with salt, as the severest punishment that could be inflicted upon them in their moist climate, the effect was horrible; the wretched criminals are said to have been devoured by worms." The medicines enumerated constitute the most effectual means of preventing the return of worms; those which follow are deemed the best for expelling particular kinds of worms. The tape-worm (Taenia solium) is almost invariably expelled dead, by a large dose of oil of turpentine; and even the long round worm is influenced by it in somewhat smaller doses. Scarcely any other article need be employed, unless the disagreeable smell and taste be objected to, when the Brayera anthelmintica,

Kousso, should be given as at once safe and efficacious: we might naturally expect this result, since it belongs to the same natural family tribe as the tormentil, namely, the Rosacea. The root of the pomegranate is much esteemed in India. No reliance should be placed on the root of the male fern, as it is only useful against the Bothriocephalus latus, or broad tape-worm, which, though common in Switzerland, is rare in Britain.

The long round worm is almost invariably expelled by the Spigelia Marylandica, or Indian pink, which belongs to the same natural family as the bog-bean, or water trefoil, namely, the Gentiana. The Oxyures, or maw-worms, are the most troublesome to the patient, and the most difficult to remove, as medicines taken by the mouth are too much altered before reaching the rectum to produce any great effect; compound chalk powder, which contains tormentil, is very useful. After the employment of the above-mentioned general measures, we should use local means only. The intolerable itching which they occasion about the rectum, is best relieved by a lavement of sweet-oil. A lavement of very cold water, or lime-water, may be useful, if, after it, a portion of aloes be introduced, and left to dissolve in the bowel. Injections of tobacco, and the use of all such dangerous articles as bear's-foot (Helleborus fœtidus), are to be avoided. The same may be said of tin-filings, cowhage, and all things which can act only as mechanical irritants.

1. Two joints of the Tania solium, tape-worm, magnified, in one of which are seen the numerous ova, or eggs. a. The oviduct by which they pass out. 2. Some of the eggs, much magnified. 3. Head of the animal, seen in front to show the mouth in the centre, surrounded by a circle of hooks, and the four suckers, a, a, a, a, of which two are alternately protruded, and two retracted. 4. The mouth with its hooks. 5. Two of the hooks, very greatly magnified. 6. A sucker, much magnified.

ANTHEM, in music, was originally a simple hymn, or kind of psalmtune, sung alternately by the two sides of the choir. The term is now, however, applied to compositions in use in all our choirs, set to verses from the Psalms, or to any portion of the Scriptures or Liturgy; and the anthem may be for one, two, or any number of voices, but rarely exceeds five parts. [ANTIPHONY,]

There are three kinds of anthem, namely, verse; full, with verse; and full. The first, which is solo, or duet, &c., has only one voice to a part, and, requiring nicety of execution, is generally assigned to the best singers in the choir. The second, consisting chiefly of chorus, is sung by the whole choir, but the verse parts by single voices. The third is chorus wholly, and performed by all the voices.

The English school has always excelled in the composition of anthems. Tallis led the way in full anthems, and was immediately followed by Birde and Farrant. Their harmony is quaint, but indescribably solemn, and in true keeping with the Gothic structures wherein it was first heard. Orlando Gibbons soon succeeded those masters, and in the same kind of anthem-but highly elaborated, and enriched with whatever florid counterpoint could supply-brought forth works that have always been, and must ever continue to be, admired, not for their ingenuity only, but their effect. Blow was one of the first to introduce the verse anthem, but his compositions, dry and stiff, are become nearly obsolete. Purcell, his pupil, produced numerous anthems, some few of them exhibiting striking beauties, and much grandeur of conception; but the majority, being written in the manner of his master, are more learned than pleasing. Michael Wise and Jeremiah Clark made our cathedrals acquainted with natural and pathetic melody. Croft, Greene, Boyce, and Nares, in anthems of all the three species, united air and harmony, genius and learning, in a manner unequalled; though it is to be regretted that their works

are little known, except where choir service is performed, and seldom heard, in our parochial churches and other places of worship.

A'NTHEMIS NOBILIS (COMMON or ROMAN CHAMOMILE)-Medical Properties of. This is an indigenous plant, frequent on our commons; but the flowers used in medicine are generally obtained from cultivated plants. Of these there are two kinds, the single or semi-double, and the perfectly double. The doubling of the flowers is attended with a lessening of their virtues, as the single are more aromatic, and contain more volatile oil, which resides in the yellow tubular florets of the disk. Their excellence may be determined by the beautiful whiteness of the radiant florets, the yellowness of those of the disk, and the strength of the aroma and taste.

Those which are brown, mouldy, and faintly smelling, should be rejected. They contain a volatile oil of a beautiful blue colour, camphor (?), a gum resinous principle, and a small quantity of tannin. The difference both of taste and smell, the diversity of the oil, and the absence of the camphor-like principle, show the impropriety of substituting for the Anthemis the flowers of the Matricarica Chamomilla (or Feverfew). In this genus the receptacle is naked, in the Anthemis it is paleaceous,-besides, the flowers are smaller, and of an unpleasant smell. The flowers should be gathered before they fully expand. The forms of exhibition are, powder, infusion, extract, and oil. Chamomile is an excellent bitter and tonic agent. Given in powder, or pill, or extract, with addition of a few drops of the oil, it is of great service in dyspepsia, atonic gout, and in intermittent fevers. The infusion may be made the vehicle for alkalies or acids.

The infusion when tepid is emetic, and may be given beneficially in dyspepsia, and at the commencement of catarrh (particularly influenza), and hooping-cough.

The decoction is an objectionable form, as it dissipates the oil. Even the infusion should be made with cold water. A most grateful aperient for weak dyspeptic patients is made by steeping senna leaves, chamomile flowers, and a very few cardamoms for ten hours in cold water, straining, and adding to the infusion any saline medicine required. The extract possesses valuable tonic properties, but in preparing it the volatile oil is dissipated, which deprives it of aroma. This may be restored to it by adding a few drops of the volatile oil. Extract of chamomile, with sulphate of quinine and the volatile oil, furnishes a combination of immense power in improving the appetite and aiding the digestion in convalescences from acute diseases, or after an attack of gout. Infusion of chamomile, either warm or cold, furnishes an excellent application to weak eyes, or after exposure to the wind in travelling, especially by railroads. This used early will often ward off inflamANTHEMIS (or ANACYCLUS) PYRETHRUM—Medical Properties of. Pellitory of Spain grows in the south of Europe, north of Africa, and in Syria, but the root of another variety, Pyrethrum, Willd. native of Germany, is also met with. The first is called the Roman or true Pellitory, the latter the German; this is necessary to be known, as the chemical analysis varies considerably. Gautier seems to have analysed the Roman, and found it to contain

mation.

It is devoid of smell, and though it does not at first excite any sensation in the mouth, it is followed by a pungent taste, and flow of saliva.

Its use is confined to local affections of the mouth, whether subinflammatory or paralytic. In rigidity of the muscles of the jaw, or rheumatic pains, from exposure to currents of air, chewing this is often of great service. An infusion may be held in the mouth, also, in toothache from cold. A tincture may be formed of it, which would be a useful agent in paralysis of the stomach, added to the infusion.

ing one distinct idea or insulated argument, gradually acquired the title of epigram. The largest portion of those collected in the Greek Anthology was written in honour of the dead, introducing their names and characters, or occupations; or as tributes to beauty, in gratitude for acceptance, or in complaint on account of rejection; some of them are panegyrics on living and illustrious virtue; others contain brief records of remarkable events; others again consist of observations on human life, for the most part in a dark style of colouring. Meleager the Syrian, whose exact date seems difficult to fix, lived probably somewhat less than a century before the Christian era, and is generally understood to have first collected the scattered fragments of the Grecian inscriptive muse. Its interest mainly arises from its being a record of the intellectual vigour of Greece in its declining days, when her energy, whether in arms or in arts, had become less active, but had not entirely died away.

Philip of Thessalonica continued the work about the time of Tiberius. The additional compositions were less interesting, but still pleasing. In the sixth century Agathias collected the miscellaneous fragments of his time, and added his own contributions to the expiring muses of Greece. The bent of his own mind towards poetry seems to have been strong; in early youth he had produced a collection of amorous poems, entitled 'Daphniaca,' which would have done honour to better times. He had a coadjutor in his friend Paul the Silentiary (an officer in the court of Justinian, corresponding to the modern gentleman-usher), whose topics were desultory, and his style that of the courtier and the voluptuary. From the decay of manuscripts and the zeal of the clergy in the dark ages against all works of imagination or of gaiety, our present collection, although large, has lost many of its brightest and earliest ornaments; and it so happens, that it retains more pieces from the compilation of Agathias, than from that of his two predecessors conjointly.

In the 10th century, Constantinus Cephalas saved these manuscripts from oblivion by re-editing them. Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, was the last collector. The first printed edition of the" Anthologia' was that of Lascaris, accompanied with some Greek verses by the editor, and a Latin epistle to Pietro de Medici. It bears the date of Florence, 1494. Claude de Saumaise, better known to the world by the Latin name of Salmasius, and to Englishmen as the antagonist of Milton, who lived in the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries, detected the unfitness of Planudes for the duties of an editor, by the discovery, in 1606, of a MS. in the library of Heidelberg. During the 18th century, Suidas and the manuscripts in the public libraries of Europe were ransacked, and a valuable booty of epigrams, undiscovered or rejected by Planudes, enriched the 'Analecta of Brunck and the Anthologia' of Jacobs. The former work, ‘Analecta Veterum Poetarum Græcorum,' is contained in three volumes, octavo, Strasburg, 1772-6: the latter in thirteen volumes, octavo, Leipzig, 1794-1814. The editition of Jacobs is the latest, and best but there is much matter strictly applicable to this purpose still left unedited. There are some inscriptions, for instance, in the Elgin collection of the British Museum, that ought to be added to any

future edition.

A volume of translations, chiefly from the Greek Anthology,' was published in 1806 by Messrs. Bland and Merivale, with contributions from other gentlemen. Subsequent editions have been since published, in which the superfluities of the preceding ones are removed, and a number of additional specimens, many of them by younger translators, are introduced: and in this state the work may be recommended as presenting a very elegant and faithful specimen of the original Greek Anthology, and one which is not likely to be surpassed. (For a full account of the editions, &c., of the Anthology, see Schoell, Geschichte der Griech. Litt.' vol. iii.)

ANTHRACIN. [PARANAPHTHALIN.]

ANTHRANILIC ACID. [PHENYL; CARBAMIC ACID.] ANTHROPO'GRAPHY, a term designed to express the objecí 1 one branch of physical geography.

The object of anthropography, which literally signifies man-description, is, to describe the actual geographical distribution of the human race; to classify it according to the varieties of physical character and language; to distinguish between nations or tribes which have the same general physical character and speak the same language, and nations or tribes which seem to belong to one stock, and have from circumstances adopted the language of another stock; to describe briefly the religious and domestic usages which constitute the basis of national character.

The term ethnography (nation-description) is sometimes used by German writers in the sense which we have given to anthropography; though, as far as we have observed, when so used, the word ethnohave assigned to anthropography. Some German writers use also the word Völkerkunde (people-knowledge) as an equivalent to ethnography. But ethnography has of late years been rather used to express an historical investigation into the origin and migrations and connection of various peoples. Taking it in this sense, ethnography is purely of an historical character, and may be considered as distinct from anthropography. A series of anthropographies, of different epochs, would form the true basis of ethnography.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM, a compound Greek word, literally

signifying" the representation of human form:" but it is properly used to signify the "representation of divinity under a human form;" and the nations or sects who have followed this practice have been sometimes called Anthropomorphites. The Egyptians represented deities under human forms, as well as those of animals, and sometimes under a combination of the two. The ancient Persians, as Herodotus tells us (i. 131), adored the Supreme Being under no visible form of their own creation, but they worshipped on the tops of mountains, and sacrificed to the sun and moon, to earth, fire, water, and the winds. The Hebrews were forbidden (Exod. xx. 4, 5) to make any image or the representation of any animated being whatever.

The Greeks were essentially anthropomorphists, and could never separate the idea of superior powers from the representation of them under a human form : hence, in their mythology and in their arts, each deity had his distinguishing attributes and a characteristic human shape. Painters in modern times have, in Roman Catholic countries, represented both the First and Second Persons of the Trinity under a human form in Protestant countries our Saviour is usually only so represented during his sojourn on earth, though individual painters have represented the risen and glorified Saviour.

Anthropomorphists is also the name of a sect of early Christians. ANTHROPOPHAGI. [CANNIBALS.] ANTIARIN (C2H2001), the poisonous principle of the Upas antiar. It forms small pearly crystals, soluble in 27 parts of boiling water, and also in alcohol and ether; it cannot be sublimed without decomposition. Introduced into a wound, it rapidly brings on vomiting, convulsions, and death. The gum resin from which it is extracted is used by the Javanese for poisoning their arrows.

According to Mulder, this gum-1esin contains

ANTI-ATTRITION, is a preparation used to lessen friction in machinery, and also to prevent iron from rusting. It is made by grinding black lead with four times its weight of lard or tallow, and adding a little camphor to the mixture.

ANTICHRIST (AVTiXpIOTOS) means, literally, the opponent of the anointed, or of the Messiah. The name of Antichrist was given by Jews and Christians to the great enemy of true religion, who shall, according to the Holy Scriptures, appear before the coming of the Messiah in glory.

The name of Antichrist occurs in the New Testament only in the first two epistles of St. John: thus, 1 Epist. ii. 18, 22, St. John says, "He is antichrist, that denieth the Father and the Son;" and in chap. iv. 3, "Every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is not of God and this is that spirit of antichrist, whereof ye have heard that it should come; and even now already is in the world." See also 2 Epist. 7. St. Paul calls Antichrist that man of sin, the son of perdition; who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped; so that he sitteth in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God. That Wicked whom the Lord shall consume with the spirit of his mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of his coming :" "whose coming is after the working of Satan, with all power and signs and lying wonders."-2 Thess. ii. Emblematical descriptions of Antichrist occur in the twelfth and thirteenth chapters of the Revelations.

ANTIDICOMARIANITES (from two Greek words signifying adversary, and Mary), a sect of so-called heretics, whose peculiar belief was that Mary the mother of our Saviour did not continue a virgin after his birth, as the Roman Catholic Church asserts that she did to the end of her life, but bore other children to her husband Joseph. The founders or first preachers of Antidicomarianitism were Helvidius and Jovinian, two Roman theologians of the latter part of the 4th century, the latter of whom is also charged with various other heresies. The original accounts of Helvidius and Jovinian, and of their opinions, are to be found in the writings of Augustine, Jerome, and Epiphanius, who were their contemporaries.

ANTIDOTES, from two Greek words, signifying, given against; the means of counteracting the effects of poisons. The term antidote had formerly a much wider signification, and was applied to the remedies for diseases occurring from natural causes, as well as to the remedies for the derangements of the functions arising from the direct introduction into the system of a known and material poison. Doubtless every disease may be looked upon as springing from some poison; as fevers from an altered and unhealthy state of the atmosphere; or eruptive and contagious diseases from the vitiated fluids or breath of one individual communicated to another, as small-pox, and hoopingcough. This opinion is expressed by the employment of the term virus, or poison, to signify the immediate cause of such diseases; as when we speak of the small-nox virus, or the vaccine virus.

But

in the present day, the word antidote is used only to signify

the means of counteracting the effects of poisons, strictly so called, we shall confine our observations to what is properly comprehended under the term, when employed in this sense. While thus limiting its signi fication, it is equally necessary that we should limit the application of the word poison. It is, however, extremely, difficult to define what a poison is. Foderé considers poisons to be "those substances known to be capable of rapidly altering or destroying some or all of the functions necessary to life." This must be understood to apply to their introduction (whether accidentally, intentionally on the part of the person suffering, or criminally on the part of others) into the body when in the usual state of health; for there are certain diseased conditions of the system, which seem to render it incapable of being injuriously affected by doses of medicines which at another time would speedily destroy life; and other states, such as when the body is under the influence of one poison, where another proves the most effectual remedy or antidote. This latter state is strikingly exemplified in the case of the bite of the Coluber carinatus, a species of snake common in the West Indies, during the state of stupor or insensibility occasioned by which, a large quantity of arsenic may be given, not only with safety, but with such advantage that the recovery of the patient may be considered as owing solely to it.

To acquire a correct idea of the different ways in which poisons operate in destroying life, we must be made aware that what we commonly regard as an individual, is made up of a number of distinct organs, which, though in some respects independent of each other, yet exert a reciprocal influence, the harmonious play of the whole being necessary to the continuous exercise or display of the principle of life, and that a cessation of the functions of any one of the more important organs necessitates the successive suspension of the rest. The most essential of these are consequently denominated the vital functions, viz., the circulation, respiration, and innervation. The circulation of red or arterial blood through the system, but especially through the nervous matter of the brain and spinal chord, is essential to the existence of the vital properties, and due performance of the functions of the different organs-which circulation is effected by the action of the heart,-while, to render the blood arterial, respiration is necessary, and this is effected by the lungs, assisted by a great number of muscles, the co-operation, or simultaneous action of which is occasioned by the influence of the spinal chord, directed or influenced by the brain. Now, certain poisons act either solely on one of these organs and functions, or upon two or three, but always in an ascertained order or uniform succession. Oxalic acid (or the acid of sugar, as it is popularly called), for example, in a small dose, acts first on the brain and spinal chord, but in a larger dose also affects the heart: in the former case, the respiration will be perceptibly interfered with, while the heart will go on acting for some time; in the latter case, both will cease at the same moment. Recovery, therefore, is much more probable in the first instance than in the second; for we can carry on artificial respiration till the brain and spinal chord have resumed the exercise of their functions; but if, as in the second instance, the heart also has ceased to act, recovery is impossible.

An arrangement of poisons according to their mode of action, that is, according to the order in which the vital functions are successively affected and destroyed by them, would be of great utility in regulating our treatment, teaching us when to be content with the employment of antidotes alone, and when to employ supplementary means,-as artificial respiration, blood-letting, &c. At present we can only make an approximation to such an arrangement.

Another point of consequence is the settlement of the question,-Do poisons act solely on the sentient extremities of the nerves of the part to which they are applied, and influence remote organs, only by sympathy, or are they absorbed into the circulating fluids, and by them carried to the organs, whose impaired or suspended functions show them to be markedly affected by them? Without entering into this dispute, it may be stated that some poisons act in the one way, some in the other way, and a few in both. Of these, the first set are the most formidable and the most speedy in their action, allowing little time for the employment of antidotes.

Some poisons act, but with different degrees of violence and speed, whatever part of the body they are applied to; others, again, only when received into the stomach or intestines; while some, such as the poison of the viper, are quite powerless when swallowed. Of all parts of the body, the brain and nervous substance are the least susceptible of the action of poisons, when applied directly to them, though acted upon by so many poisons when applied elsewhere.

With respect to the local operation of poisons, that is, their direct action on the part to which they are applied, some decompose chemically, or alter the structure of (corrode) the part which they touch, and hence they are called corrosive poisons; such are the mineral acids, of which sulphuric, or oil of vitriol may serve as an example. Besides this local effect, many of the corrosive poisons act speedily upon remote organs, the impaired function of which may become a source of greater danger than the destruction of the part first attacked.

Other poisons, without immediately altering the structure of the part, irritate it so that inflammation ensues, by which it is altered, and the general system affected, as it would be by inflammation of the same part arising from any other cause-even when the poisonous substance does not produce any immediate or powerful effect upon a remote