(a) Compound sentence," It is a strange tale, but it hath the recommendation of brevity." - Jerrold.

(b) Complex-compound. — “Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day never shines in which this element may not work." - Emerson.

Difficulty in Classifying Sentences. It is sometimes. difficult for a beginner to determine whether a sentence is complex or compound, that is, whether a certain one of its propositions is independent or dependent. Take, for instance, two such sentences as the following: “The ground is wet this morning because it rained last night "; and, “The ground is wet this morning, hence it rained last night." Out of each of these expressions we get a statement of cause and effect, but the two sentences are not therefore alike, for a sentence is to be considered not only logically but grammatically, before we can decide what kind it is. It is clear that in each sentence the first proposition is independent, so we shall examine only the second.

Now, in the first sentence the second proposition is intended to tell why the ground is wet, just as the words this morning tell when it is wet. Why a certain state exists may be told by a phrase as well as by a proposition, because it is only a modifying circumstance. It might be told here by the prepositional phrase from last night's rain. If this second proposition, then, is put into the sentence merely to tell something about some part of the independent proposition, it is clearly subordinate, and therefore dependent.

In the second sentence the second proposition does not express any modification of any idea in the first propo

sition. It states a conclusion drawn from the fact stated in the first proposition, and in the author's mind the conclusion is of equal importance with the fact that supports it. We may even supply the conjunction and before hence, which shows that the two propositions are coördinate, so if one is independent the other must be.

It may be said that if the conjunction hence is taken as a part of the following proposition, the proposition cannot stand alone any more than can the proposition introduced by because. But because must be taken as a part of its proposition because it indicates the special modifying circumstance not time, or place, but cause which the author intended that proposition to denote, whereas hence is not a part of the following proposition because that proposition is not intended, as we have shown, to be a modifier of any part of the preceding proposition, but a conclusion drawn from the whole of it. Because, indicating subordination is a subordinating conjunction and always a part of the proposition it introduces. Hence, indicating equality, or grammatical coördination, is a coördinating conjunction and never a part of the proposition following it.

The Partially Compound Sentence. Since there are three well defined types of sentences, it is natural that there should be forms lying in between any two of these types and partaking of the nature of both. One of these forms, the complex-compound sentence, we have already spoken of. Another form is found in the following sentence, "The diseases, the elements, fortune, gravity, lightning, respect no persons.' - Emerson.

Here there are several subjects but only one assertion

DIFFICULTIES

made, hence only one proposition.

21.

The sentence re

sembles both the compound sentence and the simple sentence, but is, strictly speaking, neither one. It is called partially compound, and may be considered a fifth kind of sentence. Sometimes it contains only one subject but two or more predicates,-"He shook his head, shouldered the rusty firelock, and, with a heart full of trouble and anxiety, turned his steps homeward.” — Irving.

Exercise 3

Classify the following sentences according to structure, giving in each case the grounds for your decision.

1. I could never fathom how a man dares to lift up his voice to preach in a cathedral. Stevenson.

3. When you emerge from the portals of St. Mark's, you enter upon spaces of such sunny length and breadth, set round with such exquisite architecture that it makes you glad to be living in this world. Howells.

4. Education, to accomplish the ends of good government, should be universally diffused. - Webster.

5. If a country finds itself wretched, sure enough that country has been misguided. - Carlyle.

6. These winds in the winter season frequently freshen into tempests, and, sweeping down the Atlantic coast and the winding Gulf of Mexico, burst with the fury of a hurricane on its unprotected shores, and on the neighboring West India islands. — Prescott.

7. The Puritan prostrated himself in the dust before his Maker; but he set his foot on the neck of his king. — Macaulay.

8. You get entangled in another man's mind, even as you lose yourself in another man's grounds. — Lamb.

9.

10. He reeled, and staggering back sank to the ground;
And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell,
And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all
The cloud.

- M. Arnold.

II. Only the learned, who were very few, could read Latin; hence there came to be great ignorance of the Bible, and all sorts of superstitions and false beliefs took possession of the people, and the Bible came to be almost a forgotten and unused book. Munger.

12. Wherever the Anglo-Saxon race goes, there law, industry, and safety for life and property are certain to arise. · Dickens.

13. The islands of the lagoons seemed to rise and sink with the light palpitations of the waves like pictures on the undulating fields of banners. · Howells.

14.

The heights by great men reached and kept
Were not attained by sudden flight,

But they, while their companions slept,
Were toiling upward in the night.

-Longfellow.

15. Sweet funeral bells from some incalculable distance, wailing over the dead that die before the dawn, awakened me as I slept in a boat moored to some familiar shore. De Quincey. 16. Terror, not love, was the spring of education with the Aztecs. ·Prescott.

17. As night set in, the wind whistled in a spiteful, falsetto key, and the rain lashed the old tavern as if it were a balky horse that refused to move on. Aldrich.

18. Feudalism was an institution of the Middle Ages, which grew out of the miseries and robberies that succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire. — Lord.

19. Tennyson delights to sing of heroic deeds and to celebrate

noble souls.

DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 23

CHAPTER IV

THE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM We have classified sentences according to their structure as simple, complex, compound, partially compound, and complex-compound. There is another classification made on the basis of form, which gives us three kinds of sentences, declarative, interrogative, imperative. These three forms arise from the fact that there are three modes of communicating thought; viz., by assertion, by question, by command.

66

The Declarative Sentence.-A declarative sentence is one that states or declares something, 'Aunt Celia has an intense desire to improve my mind." — Mrs. Wiggin.

This is the commonest kind of sentence, especially in books, for it is the business of an author to inform his readers of his own thoughts, not to inquire after theirs. It is the style of sentence best fitted for relating events, describing objects, or making clear any difficult subject. Its order is usually the natural one, first the subject and then the predicate. Variations from this order will be taken up as they present themselves in connection with different sentence-elements.

The Interrogative Sentence. An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question, Who now reads the an

66

cient authors?"-F: Harrison.

This kind of sentence is used often in conversation, both oral and written. It is also common in addresses, such as sermons and lectures, where the speaker asks questions