expanse of lobed thallus of a clear olive green, with a sort of raised veining, which leaves the general surface of the frond depressed and pitted. The under side is very beautiful, the colour a soft buff, the texture velvety, and the parts which form pits on the upper surface rising into rounded protuberances. The apothecia are set on the thallus a little within the margin, and are formed of circular shields of a red hue, and placed in groups of three or four together. The whole of one side the trunk of that lofty tree is densely clothed with this beautiful creeping plant. But let us now draw your attention to the groups of fine hawthorns which are round us: observe how every twig and spray is beset with a coating of green so vivid, so exquisitely bright, that you can scarcely believe it is not beginning to exhibit its own verdant spring foliage. Gather a branch, and you will find that this too is a lichen-one of the Parmelias. It is green when young; but when mature, becomes of a brilliant sulphury yellow. If you examine the branch you have gathered with a magnifier, you will see the thallus of the lichen to be lobed and plaited, the lobes overlapping each other "in much-admired confusion." From the surface of this imbricated mass of foliage stand out very many circular shields, raised like little salvers, and plainly distinguishable by the naked eye, although more satisfactorily defined with the aid of a lens: these are the apothecia which contain the spores. But now let us proceed to the moor, only observing, that there is scarcely an object that we pass which has not more or less of lichen-growth upon it: the black patches on those stones, the mealy crust on that gate, the splashes of yellow, and black, and white, and grey, and the tufts of glaucous moss on the park palings, all are lichens, and all add to the beauty and diversity of the colouring which enlivens the aspect of the country in winter. It must be added, also, that the personal pronouns, ich, I; tu, thou; cr, he; sic, she; es, it; wir, we; ihr, ye or you; ste, they, cause the adjective before which they stand generally to take this mixed form of declension. § 33. RULE FOR ADJECTIVES. (1.) When the adjective is immediately preceded and restricted by the indefinite article, by a personal or possessive pronoun, or by the word fein, it assumes the endings characteristic of the mixed declension. EXAMPLES. Singular. § 31.-RULE FOR ADJECTIVES. (1.) When immediately preceded and restricted by the definite article, by a relative or demonstrative pronoun, or by an indefinite numeral declined after the ancient form, the adjective fol lows the new form of declension. Nom. Der gute Mann, the good Die gute Frau, the good woman. man. [good man. [woman. Gen. Des guten Mannes, of the Der guten Frau, of the good Dat. Dem guten Manne, to the Der guten Frau, to the good NEUTER. LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY. idea, which the first qualifies as a whole, the second adjective takes (except in the nom. sing. and in the nom. and acc. plural) the new form of declension; as:-Mit trockn em weiß en Sand, with dry white sand; where white sand, that is, sand which is white, is said also to be dry. (3.) Participles are declined after the manner of adjectives; thus, ter geliebte Bruder, the beloved brother; gen. tes geliebten Bruters, of the beloved brother, etc. (4.) Adjectives in German, as in other languages, are, by ellipsis, often made to serve in place of nouns. They then begin with a capital letter, and, excepting that they retain the forms of declension peculiar to adjectives, are in all respects treated as nouns. Their gender is made apparent either by their terminations or by the presence of an article or other definitive word; as:-Ein Deutscher, a German; dieser Deutsche, this German; tie Deutsche, the German woman; das Schöne, the beautiful; bas Gute, the good; that is, that which is beautiful-that which is good. So, also, das Weiß, the white; das Grün, the green; tas Roth, the red, etc. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN. 35 meridian of 100° east longitude forms its limit as far as its intersection with the parallel of 10° south latitude, while on the north-west it is bounded by a line traced round the northwest end of Sumatra and through the Strait of Malacca as far as the intersection of 10° north latitude and 110° east longitude, and thence in a straight line to the western extremity of its northern limit, the intersection of 36° north latitude and 160° east longitude. This enormous area is divided into four parts, and in naming them and their extent we shall not repeat the portion of the external boundary line which belongs to each, but merely define the lines within this limit which divide the whole area into four equal portions. The first part is called Malaysia, or the Eastern, Indian, or Asiatic Archipelago. It forms the north-western portion of Oceania, and is bounded on the east by 131° east longitude, and on the south by 10° south latitude. It is called Malaysia because it is the home of the Malay race, a people distinguished by a bright tawny-brown complexion and straight black hair, and noted for a cruel and bloodthirsty disposition. The people on the coast of the islands of Malaysia are much addicted to piracy. The second division forming the south-western part of Oceania is called Australasia or Melanesia. It is bounded on the north by the equator, and on the east by the 180th meridian. It derives its name Australasia from its position being situated to the south of the continent of Asia and Malaysia, whose islands were formerly reckoned as among the Asiatic islands. The name Melanesia is obtained from two Greek words, meaning black and island, and may be taken to mean the "district of the black islands," so called in reference to the colour of their inhabitants, the natives of New Guinea being an athletic negro race, as black, but far uglier in appearance than the negro of Africa, while the natives of Australia are dark-brown in colour. The chief point in which the natives of New Guinea and Australia differ from the negro is in the hair, which is straight, instead of being so short and crisped as to resemble wool. 1. I am glad to meet with you here, I have important matters to communicate to you. 2. I am glad to see you so well. 3. I should be glad to see you again soon. 4. He is angry at the behaviour of his nephew. 5. He is angry on account of his son's staying out. 6. She is angry with herself. 7. The friend was vexed with me, but I have pacified him again. 8. The mother is angry with her stubborn child. 9. I am angry with him, because he has offended me. 10. Do you know Mr. N. P 11. Yes, I became acquainted with him last week at your aunt's house. 12. I become better acquainted with him every day. 13. One becomes acquainted with anybody sooner than with one's self. 14. Where did you become acquainted with this gentleman? 15. We have known each other from our youth, and become better acquainted every day. 16. Do you know Miss B.? 17. No, but I hope yet to become acquainted with her. 18. This man will soon become known through his excellent works. 19. Mr. N. introduced me to this family. 20. He was introduced to the company by his brother. 21. This man's exterior represents nothing. 22. This actor personated Charles XII. 23. By whom were you introduced? 24. I am indebted to the rich merchant's niece for this honour. 25. My friend introduced me to the company. 26. The Frenchman mtroduced this new fashion. 27. The smuggler imports forbidden the great number of islands that lie scattered over its surface, goods. EXERCISE 149 (Vol. III., page 92). 1. Es würde mir sehr angenehm sein, wenn Sie mich zufrieden ließen. 2. Gs war sehr befriedigend für mich, meinen Bruder wohl zu sehen. 3. Es ist mir sehr lieb zu hören, daß Ihr Unternehmen gelungen ist. 4. Er ist böse über das Betragen seines Bruters. 5. Mein Bruder stellte mich Herrn G. ver. 6. Ist Ihre Schwester schon mit meinem Bruder bekannt geworden? 7. Ja, fie lernte ihn in dem lezten Concerte kennen. 8. Wissen Sie, arum Ihr Bruder so böse ist? 9. Er ist böse auf mich, weil ich über ihn laste. 10. Der Schauspieler stellte Heinrich IV. seht gut vor. 11. Jene Regierung hat gute Geseße eingeführt. 12. Diese More ist von den Franpien eingeführt worden. 13. Die Wein Einfuhr von Frankreich ist sehr LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XLI. POLYNESIA. We now come to the consideration of the sixth and last division of the world's surface, which is called by modern geographers Oceania, because the land found in it, with the exception of the small continent of Australia, consists of clusters and groups of islands, of comparatively small size, that lie like dots of verdure scattered over the broad blue expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Boundaries and Divisions.-The lines that form the boundaries of Oceania may be traced as follows. Its northern limit the 36th parallel of north latitude, or, rather, as much of this parallel as is intercepted between the meridians of 160° east and west. Starting from the point of intersection of 36° Sorth latitude and 160° west longitude, a line traced thence in a diagonal direction to the intersection of the equator with 105° west longitude, forms its boundary on the north-east. Its limit on the east is the meridian of 105° west longitude traced southward till it meets the 60th parallel of south latitude, which parallel from this point to its intersection with 100° east longitude forms its southern boundary. On the west the The third or north-eastern division, called Micronesia, from the smallness of the islands that are found in it, is bounded on the west by 131° west longitude, and on the south by the equator. The fourth or south-eastern division, called Polynesia, from is bounded on the north by the equator, and on the west by the 180th meridian. A brief notice of the principal islands of Malaysia has been given in the description of the continent of Asia and its dependencies (Vol. III., page 121), but it will be as well to recapitulate their names here. They are (1) the Sunda Islands, comprising Sumatra, Java, Bali, Sumbawa, Lombok, Floris, Solor, Timor, Sandalwood, and many smaller islands; (2) Borneo, with the little island of Labuan, a British dependency rich in coal, on the north-western coast; (3) the Celebes Islands, which include Celebes, Boutan, Xulla, and others; (4) the Moluccas or Spice Islands, of which the principal are Amboyna, Ceram, Gilolo, Bouro, and Banda; (5) the Sanguir Islands; (6) the Sooloo Islands; and (7) the Philippine Islands, comprising Luzon, Mindanao, Palawan, Mindoro, Negros, Zebu, Leyta, Samar, and several small islands, estimated to exceed 1,000 in number. The estimated area of Borneo and some of the above-named groups of islands has been given in the lesson to which reference has been made above. The European countries that possess dependencies in this part of Oceania are Spain, which owns the Philippine Islands; Holland or the Netherlands, which possesses Sumatra and Java, with the exception of small tracts still ruled by native princes, the Celebes Islands, and the Spice Islands or Moluccas; and Great Britain, which has the little island of Labuan. This island, which has an area. of fifty square miles, and is about the size of Jersey, was ceded to the British by the Sultan of Borneo in 1846. Its chief town is Victoria. The capitals of the Dutch and Spanish dependencies in Malaysia are Batavia in Java, and Manilla in Luzon. The islands of Malaysia, especially Borneo, are rich in minerals, Borneo especially containing plenty of gold, iron, and coal; diamonds are also found in this island. Of the vegetable productions of the various groups the Moluccas or Spice Islands are noted, as their name implies, for nutmegs, cloves, and spices of all kinds; the Philippine Isles for fine tobacco; the Sunda Isles for camphor and gutta-percha; while all contain forests of ebony, teak, sandalwood, rosewood, and other useful and ornamental woods. The second division, Australasia, which contains so many of the most important of our colonies, will be made the subject of our next lesson, and we now pass on to the third or northeastern division, called Micronesia. This section of Oceania was formerly considered as part of Polynesia, but it has been found convenient to treat Polynesia as being divided into two parts: one north of the equator, which has been named Micronesia, as it has been shown; and the other south of the equator, which retains the name that was formerly applied to the whole. The principal island groups in Micronesia are (1) the Bonin Islands, (2) the Ladrone or Marianne Islands, (3) the Pelew Islands, and (4) the Caroline Islands in the west; (5) the Cornwallis Islands, (6) the Marshall Islands or Mulgrave Archipelago, and some smaller groups in the centre; and (7) the Sandwich Islands, with Christmas Island and a few lesser ones in the east. The groups of islands scattered through Micronesia have a joint area estimated at about 10,000 square miles, with a population of about 250,000. Of these islands, the Sandwich and the Ladrone Islands are of volcanic formation and are mountainous, consisting for the most part of one more lofty central masses, upheaved from the bed of the ocean by volcanic action, with a fringe of lowland of limited extent shelving less abruptly to the water's edge. The rest are of coral formation, many being atolls islands formed on or Pal 160 Faraung Tork I. 150 Walker's I QUristmas I. UTH covered by Captain Cook in 1778, who, it will be remembered, was murdered at Owhyhee by the natives on his second visit to the group in the following year. The Ladrone Islands were discovered by Magalhaens or Magellan in 1520, and were named the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, from the way in which such of the inhabitants as visited his vessels laid hands on everything that they could secrete and carry away. These islands are considered as an appendage to the Philippine Islands. The principal groups of the South Sea Islands, as the islands of Polynesia are sometimes called, comprise a united area of about 70,000 square miles, while the population is estimated at 500,000. They may be divided into (1) the Feejee or Fiji Islands, (2) the Samoa group or Navigators' Islands, and (3) the Tonga or Friendly Islands in the west; (4) Cook's Islands, and (5) the Society Islands in the centre; and (6) the Marquesas Islands, (7) the Low Archipelago, (8) the Austral Islands, and (9) Easter Island in the east. Of these, the Society and Mar Bert's Caroline T. eggener's Tiburones! F 20 Raraton COOKS, OR HERVEY IS Rimata SCLETY or Otah ga, or Washington on L 150 10 quesas groups, and some of the Feejee, Samoa, and Cook's Islands, are of volcanic origin; the remainder are of coral formation. The people of the Feejee Islands are black, like the natives of New Guinea or Papua, and other islands of Australasia ; but the inhabitants of the remainder, and of the islands of Micronesia, are a handsome and well-formed race, with pleasing features, rich brown complexion, and straight hair of great length and glossy blackness. The area of the Feejee Islands is 20,000 square miles. As they contain several excellent harbours, and produce valuable woods, arrowroot, and tropical fruits, and are only 800 miles from New Zea less lagoon, to which access is obtained by a narrow channel in the walls of the reef. The Sandwich Islands are extremely mountainous, and are the principal islands in the division, extending over an area of 6,000 square miles. They are thirteen in number, and of these Hawaii or Owhyhee, Maui, Oahu, Kanai, and four others are inhabited. In Hawaii are two lofty mountains, Mowna Loa and Mowna Kea, which are 13,760 feet and 13,953 feet respectively above the level of the sea. The latter is a volcano which is frequently in eruption. The last outbreak, in 1867, was attended with serious damage to life and property in the island, which has an area of 4,500 square miles. The group is advantageously situated for commercial purposes, being in the centre of the North Pacific Ocean, about midway between the western coast of the United States and China. There is gold in Hawaii, and all the islands produce grain, vegetables, and fruits common to both Europe and tropical countries in abundance. The capital of the group is Honolulu, in Oahu. The inhabitants have been converted to Christianity since 1819, when idolatry was formally abolished, and are now making rapid strides in civilisation. The islands were dis land, it is considered that they might be advantageously settled by the British Government, which now exercises a species of protectorate over them, with a view to the cultivation of cotton, for the growth of which its soil is well suited. The chief and most valuable production of the Samoa and Tonga Islands is the cocoa-nut palm. The principal of Cook's Islands, or Hervey's Islands, as the group is sometimes called, are Raratonga, Atiu, and Mangeia, but are not possessed of any feature or production which calls for special notice. Very different, on the contrary, is the group known as the Society Islands, which consists of about twelve beautiful islands, mostly of volcanic origin, the principal of which is Tahiti or Otaheite, justly called the "gem of the Pacific," from its extreme beauty when viewed from the ocean. This mountain-mass, of small superficial extent, for the area of the entire group is only 575 miles, towers above the ocean level to the height of 10,000 feet, and is covered from its base to its summit with trees and vegetation of the most luxuriant description. The chief productions of Tahiti and the neighbouring islands are the cocoa-nut, arrow. root, sugar, and pearls of a fine quality. These islands are claimed by the French Government as a dependency of France, a settlement having been effected at Tahiti in 1843. The island of Tahiti, it should be said, consists of two peninsulas, each consisting chiefly of a lofty central mountain, and connected by a narrow isthmus. The population of the group is estimated at 9,000. The Marquesas Islands were occupied by the French at about the same time that they made a settlement in Tahiti. The largest of the group is Noukahiva, which has a superficial extent of about 200 square miles only; the area of the whole cluster being estimated at 12,000. The islands are productive, yielding every kind of tropical vegetable and fruit; but the inhabitants, unlike the majority of the men of Micronesia and Polynesia, are fierce and intractable, and given to cannibalism: indeed, the presence of the French settlers, and the exertions of the missionaries, have failed in inducing that progress in civilisation that contact with European nations and the introduction of Christianity have effected in the Sandwich Islands. The Austral or Southern Islands are so called from their position with regard to the Society Islands. The Low Archipelago is a vast assemblage of islands of coral formation, raised so little above the surface of the ocean that it seems possible that a violent storm might render them a mere wreck, and destroy the vegetation and the comparatively few people that are now found on them. The Gambier Islands, which form a portion of the archipelago, are, however, of a different character, being of volcanic formation, and therefore mountainous. Pitcairn Island, noted for being the refuge of the mutineers of the Bounty, who intermarried with the native women, and whose descendants number about 200, is also of volcanic origin, and is possessed of a rich and fertile soil. Easter Island, a small island which may also be compared to Jersey in point of size, contains the craters of some extinct volcanoes, and some curious colossal statues, of which there is not even a legend current among the present inhabitants in commemoration of those who made them and of the purposes for which they were made. The maps that accompany this lesson show the relative position of Australia and the islands in the centre and eastern part of Oceania. For the position of the islands of Malaysia the reader is referred to the Map of Asia, which is given in page 120, Vol. III., of the POPULAR EDUCATOR. LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-XXXIII. ALDEHYDES-KETONES-ACIDS. ALDEHYDES Occupy a place between the alcohols and the vegetable acids. They are the result of the imperfect combustion of the alcohol, by which some of its hydrogen is removed; hence the origin of the word (alcohol dehydrogenated). They readily absorb oxygen, forming the acid, thus = Aldebyde. 2C,H,O+2H,0. Acetic Acid. C,H,O,. Alcohol. 2C,H,0 +0, Aldehyde. C,H,O+0 = Acetic Acid (H,C2H ̧O1) is the most important of the class. It appears in the juices of several plants; but for commercial purposes it is artificially prepared by causing the alcohol in various fermented liquors to become oxidised. about 6 per cent. Vinegar owes its acidity to acetic acid, of which it contains The process of manufacture in England is this:-Malt wort is allowed to ferment until all the sugar has become alcohol. The yeast is then removed as thoroughly as possible, and the "wash" is allowed to trickle in at the top of large vats, which are filled with wicker-work. The vat must have been in operation some time, in order that the slimy mould Since the popularly called mother of vinegar-may grow on the basketwork. In a new vat, some old wicker-work covered with the mould is introduced. This mould is a vegetable organismmycoderma aceti-and plays a similar part as the yeast did in the alcoholic fermentation. Near the bottom of the vat a number of holes are bored, whieh admit the air. temperature of the vat rises during the operation, a current is induced, and the air entering at the holes in the bottom, ascends, meeting the alcohol as it trickles over the wicker-work, which in the presence of the plant it oxidises into acetic acidC2H2O + 0, H2O + C2H ̧0,. = Acetic aldehyde may be procured by distilling a mixture of 6 parts of sulphuric acid, 4 of alcohol (specific gravity 0-850), 4 of water, and 6 of finely-powdered black oxide of manganese. The distillate is several times rectified from calcium chloride. Acetic aldehyde is a colourless liquid, possessing an irritating, pungent odour. One of its most prominent characteristics is its action on a salt of silver. To the solution of the silver salt should be added a little ammonia, and then boiled with the aldehyde. The oxygen of the salt goes to the aldehyde to form an acid; this acid combines with the ammonia, and the metal is deposited as a bright mirror film on the sides of the vessel. With ammonia a crystalline compound, C,H,(NH,)O, is formed; and a third distinctive action is their combining with hydrosodic sulphite, the compounds being soluble in water. Propionic Aldehyde (C,H,O), Butyric Aldehyde (C,H,O), and the others of this series are of no great interest. KETONES OR ACETONES. Ketone is the name applied to the group; acetone is the ketone of acetic acid. As the other ketones have little interest, we shall only describe The best vinegar is prepared, in France, from wine. This is matters in the retort. Acetic Acid is also furnished in the destructive distillation of wood. It is then known under the name of pyroligneous acid. We have referred to "wood naphtha" as one of the products. After this has been driven off, acetic acid is found with the tarry By adding milk of lime or sodic carbo nate, the acetic acid is extracted as an acetate of lime or soda. The salt is cautiously roasted, in order to free it from the tarry matters; then dissolved in water and crystallised. acetic acid free, sulphuric acid is added, and the mixture distilled. The greatest portion of acetic acid used in this country is procured in this manner. from a centre. To set the Properties.-Below 17° Cent., the normal acid does not exist in a liquid state, but appears as crystals, in plates which radiate Hence it is known as glacial (ice-like) acetic increases until about one-third of its weight of water is added: acid. It is remarkable that on being diluted, its density then it begins to obey the ordinary law, and its density de creases for further additions of water. The acetates are largely used in the arts and in medicine. Aluminum acetate is used by the dyer and the calico-printer as a mordant. A solution of this salt is thickened by gum, and thus applied to the fabrics, which are then hung up in a warm, moist atmosphere. Iron, zinc, and manganese acetates are also used as mordants. |