LESSONS IN GERMAN. 187 Those indefinite numerals which denote number only are the following:Jeder, jete, jetes, each, every. Jeglicher, -e, Jerweter, -e, -es, -cs, old and unusual forms of jeder. Mancher, manche, manches, many a, many (in the plural). (2.) Those which are employed to denote quantity only are the following: Etwas, some; which is indeclinable. Ganz, the whole, as opposed to a part; declined generally like an adjective; indeclinable, however, when placed before neuter names of places and not preceded by an article or pronoun; as-Ganz Deutschland, all Germany; (with the article or pronoun preceding) das ganze Deutschlant, the whole of Germany; sein ganzer Reichthum, his whole riches. The dimidiatives, which answer to the question, "Which (i.e., alb, half, follows the same law in declension as the word ganz which of the numbers) is but a half? are formed from the ordinals by annexing the word halb (half); thus : Zweitehalb, the second half, i.e., one whole and a half; 1}. Drittehalb, the third half, i.e., two wholes and a half; 2}. Birtchalb, the fourth half, i.e., three wholes and a half; 34, etc. § 50.-ITERATIVE NUMERALS. The iteratives, which answer to the question, "How often, or how many times?" are formed from cardinals and from indefinite numerals, by the addition of the word mal (time); thus :Ginmal, one time; once. Dreimal, three times. Jetes mal, each time. Vielmal, many times, etc. Mal is sometimes separated from the numerals, and is then regularly declined as a neuter noun. § 51.-DISTINCTIVES. (1.) The name distinctives has been applied to a class of ordinal adverbs which answer to the question, "In what place in the series ?" and which are formed by affixing ens to the ordinal numbers; thus: Erstens, first or in the first place. | Viertens, fourthly. Drittens, thirdly. Fünftens, fifthly. Sechstens, sixthly, etc. (2.) Under the name distinctives may also be set down a class of numeral nouns, formed from the cardinals by the addition of the suffixes er, in, and ling, which are used to designate "one arrived at, belonging to, or valued at a certain number; thus: (3.) Those denoting both number and quantity are the following:Aller, alle, alles, all-applied to quantity, in the singular only; as:-Aller Reichthum, all riches; alle Macht, all power; alles Golt, all gold; dieses alles (not alle) will ich geben, all this will I give; welches alles, all which. Placed before a pronoun, which is followed by a noun, the terminations of declension are often omitted; as, all (for alles) dieses Geld, all this money; all (for aller) dieser Wein, all this wine. In the neuter of the singular, it often denotes an indefinite number or amount; as, alles, was reisen kann, reiset, all that can travel, do travel; er scheint alles zu wissen, he seems to know everything. In the plural, the word denotes number; as, alle Menschen, all men; an allen Orten, in all places; it is never used in the sense of whole, which is expressed by ganz; as, ter ganze Tag, the whole day; nor is it followed, as in English, by the definite article; as, alles Geld (not alles das Gelt), all the money. Finally, the phrases "all of us,' "all of you," etc., are in German, wir alle, we all, etc. The plural is used like our word every; as, ich gehe alle Tage, I go every day. Einiger, einige, einiges, some, few; applied to number in the plural only. Sechziger (sixtier), a sexagenarian, or one of a company of sixty. Dreier (one of three), a threepenny piece, a coin of 3 pfennigs Gifer (eleven-er), wine of the year 1811. § 52.-PARTITIVES OR FRACTIONALS. Under this name (partitives) are embraced a class of neuter nouns answering to the question, "What part?" which are formed by affixing to the ordinals the suffix tel (part); thus Drittel, a third. Siebentel, a seventh. Tel is simply a contracted form of the word Theil, a part. From 20 upwards note that stel (instead of tel) is added; as, zwanzigftel, the twentieth, etc. § 53.-INDEFINITE NUMERALS. (1) The indefinite numerals, which are, for the most part, used and inflected as adjectives, are commonly divided into such as serve to indicate Number, such as merely denote Quantity, and such, finally, as are employed to express both. 'Ginfältig is also applied to what is simple, artless, or silly. Instead of zweitehalb, the word in common use is anterthalb: the part andert being from der andere, the second. The word would be antere balb; but the final e is exchanged for a t, probably for the sake of assimilating it in form to the rest of the words of this class. Etlicher, -e, -es, some; synonymous with einiger. Rein, keine, kein, no, none; declined like ein, cine, ein, one; as, fein Vater, no father; feine Mutter, no mother; fein Kind, no child. When employed as a noun, it takes the old form of declension; as, feiner der alten Verehrer, none of the ancient worshippers. Gammtlicher, -e, -es, entire Gesammter, -e, -es, whole; regularly declined like adjectives. Viel, much (in the plural, many), when it expresses quantity or number, taken collectively, and is not preceded by an arti cle or a pronoun, is not declined; as, viel Golt, much gold; but das viele Golt, the quantity of gold. When applied to a number, as individuals, it is regularly declined; as, vieler, viele, vieles, etc.; thus, viele Männer sind träge, many men are indolent; er hat sehr viele Freunde, und ich habe auch viele, he has a great many friends, and I have also a great many. Wenig, little (in the plural, few), follows the same rules of inflec- Mehr, more, are indeclinable; for the plural of mehr, however, see above. Genug, enough, sufficient-never declined; Geld genug, money enough. Nichts, nothing. Lauter, merely, only-never declined; lauter Kupfer, copper only, or nothing but copper. § 54.-PRONOUNS. In German, as in other languages, will be found a number of those words which, for the sake of convenience, are employed as the direct representatives of nouns. These are the pronouns. They are divided, according to the particular offices which they perform, into six different classes, viz. :-Personal, Possessive, Demonstrative, Determinative, Relative, and Interrogative. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GERMAN. EXERCISE 152 (Vol. III., page 139). 1. He spends his time in doing nothing. 2. He spent the greatest part of his youth at the gymnasiums and universities of his country. 3. He spends most of his time in useless occupations. 4. Many people pass their time in eating, drinking, and sleeping. 5. With every man who has but a spark of feeling, his fatherland and its welfare excels everything. 6. There is nothing like tranquillity of soul, and the consciousness of having done one's duty. 7. He said his greatest joy and his greatest treasure were his children, and with him nothing surpassed them. 8. A sailor said there was nothing like his pipe. 9. To an indifferent man many things are indeed the same; a soldier. but he who says that everything is the same to him, is a liar. 10. What we have promised we should perform, whether disadvantage or advantage arises from it. 11. In war all things must be alike to 12. A true man patiently adapts himself to all circumstances; it is indifferent to him what he does, but not how he does it. 13. Since his children's death everything is alike to him; he is indifferent about those who surround him, and careless about the course of his affairs. 14. Every man has his free will; therefore it does not concern me how he employs his time. 15. I travelled by way of [via] Rotterdam and London to America. 16. The friend just now went across the street. 17. He pitied the poor boy, therefore he received him into his house, and gave him a good education. He who has no pity for dumb animals, and who is unmerciful towards them, has likewise no pity for mankind. LESSONS IN LOGIC.-I. INTRODUCTION-MENTAL OPERATIONS-TERMS PROPOSITIONS. 18. MANY persons entertain a prejudice against the study of Logic, believing it to be either so difficult that it is beyond the reach of ordinary intellects, or else so useless as not to be worth any labour it would cost. From the tone and abstruse style of many even of the professedly elementary books upon the subject, this, perhaps, is hardly to be wondered at; but our aim in these lessons will be, by presenting a few of the broad outlines of Logic before our readers in as plain and simple terms as possible, and by pointing out the practical benefits to be derived, especially in self-education, from some acquaintance with its principles, to show the real groundlessness of such opinions; and by so doing to induce some of our readers to pursue the study for themselves, and so acquire an amount of intellectual training the possession of which they will always find valuable. What, then, we must inquire at the outset, is Logic ?-a question which, it must be admitted, is much easier to ask than to answer accurately and concisely. From the time of Aristotle, the earliest systematic writer upon Logic, hardly any two persons have been quite agreed upon its definition or the mode in which it should be treated. Even to enumerate these definitions and views would be impossible, and we must be satisfied with trying to get a general idea, which may be popularly intelligible, of the subject and aim of Logic, as it is regarded in modern times. Until comparatively lately Logic was treated of by most writers as the Art of Thinking, a conception too vague and wide to be capable of realisation. The late Archbishop Whately, who contributed at least as much as any other writer to restore Logic to the place which it should occupy in education, regarded it as the science and the art (not of thought or thinking in general, but of one only out of the many branches of thinking) of Reasoning. So far as it institutes an analysis of the process of the mind in reasoning he views it as a science, and so far as it furnishes practical rules, derived from those principles, for guarding against erroneous deductions, he views it as an art. One of the ablest thinkers of the present day, J. S. Mill, has defined it as "the science of all the operations of the understanding which are subservient to the estimation of evidence, or, more shortly, the science of evidence or proof." This view, it will be seen, embraces a much wider field than Archbishop Whately's. Without, however, critically examining these or any of the other numerous definitions of Logic, it will be sufficient for our present purpose if we understand that it aims at investigating the principles which every thinker observes (consciously or unconsciously) in reasoning, when he reasons soundly, and at deducing from them rules to guard against error or carelessness in the process of reasoning. So far as the former aim is concerned, we may regard it as a science; while, in reference to the latter aim, it may be considered as an art. A science treats of theoretical or speculative knowledge only, while art is the application of knowledge to practice; the study of a science may be nothing more than pleasant, the pursuit of an art must possess some practical utility. It is generally laid down that the operations of the mind are three-Simple Apprehension, Judgment, and Reasoning. This is a statement the meaning of which we must clearly understand. It may, perhaps, seem strange to be told for the first time that it is possible to find any system or principle of classification amongst the different thoughts and ideas which are always passing, apparently at random, through our minds. It may seem that each idea and operation of the mind is so unlike every other that it must be impossible to group them into classes possessing any features of resemblance. Reflection and analysis, however, have proved the contrary; and the three divisions above given ultimately include them all. Simple apprehension is the operation by which the mind receives ideas. This it does through various channels-through sight, hearing, and touch, for example. But whatever may be the means through which the idea (using this word in its popular acceptation) is conveyed to the mind, the faculty or operation which the mind exercises in merely receiving it is called Simple Apprehension. When the mind has thus got ideas it does not rest there it compares them one with another, and determines whether they agree or disagree. For instance, having thus received or apprehended the ideas of fire and heat, it compares them, and pronounces that they agree; or the ideas of iron and softness, it compares these, and pronounces that they disagree. The result in each case is expressed in a Judgment-in the one, "fire is hot," and in the other, "iron is not soft." Judgment, then, is the comparing together in the mind two of the ideas got by apprehension, and pronouncing that they agree or that they disagree with one another. A third process yet remains. A person after he has pronounced the judgment of agreement, that is a fire," may join this (in a manner subsequently to be explained) with a previous judgment, "fire is hot," and conclude from the two combined "that is hot." When this is done, the mind has gone through a process of reasoning. So, too, in the other example given above, the Reasoning faculty will have been exercised if, from joining the two judgments, "iron is not soft," and "that is soft," we conclude "that is not iron." Reasoning, then, may be defined to be the act of the mind in proceeding from certain judgments to a third founded upon them. Language, even if not (as some think) the only means by which all these several operations of Apprehension, Judgment, and Reasoning can be carried on within the mind, is, at least, the means we are obliged to use in communicating them to others. We shall therefore consider the different ways in which the notions gained by these operations are expressed in language. Briefly, an act of Apprehension is denoted by a term; an act of Judgment, by a proposition; and an act of Reasoning, by an argument (called, as we shall subsequently see, when expressed in the particular manner required by the rules of Logic, a syllogism). Each of these must be examined separately. A Term (or name, as it is called by some) may consist of one word or of several, according to the sound or sounds used in each particular language to express the idea or object for which it stands. In our own language (as, indeed, in most others) the vast majority of terms consist of single words; and it is necessary to gain some insight into their import and classification before we can proceed farther with our study of Logic. This will be obvious, if we consider that the knowledge thus gained will enable us to understand the meaning and analysis of Propo sitions (which are expressed in words), and to guard against many errors and defects which otherwise might creep into our Reasoning (which we must also carry on through the instrumentality of words). J. S. Mill defines a term as "a word (or set of words) serving the double purpose of a mark to recall to ourselves the likeness of a former thought, and a sign to make it known to others:" and it hardly seems requisite to expand this definition. A term is, however, explained, perhaps, more popularly by Archbishop Whately as "the view we take of an object." Terms have been divided into a number of classes, of which the following are the principal: (1.) Into singular (or individual) and common (or general).— A singular term is one which is only capable of being truly affirmed, in the same sense of one thing-e.g., "Julius Cæsar," LESSONS IN LOGIC. "City of London," "this stone." A common term, on the other hand, is one which is capable of being truly affirmed, in the same sense of an indefinite number of things-i.e., of all those which belong to the class for which the term stands-e.g., "emperor," city,' stone." 189 66 an proposition and analyse it-e.g., "Man is an animal.” Here, in the language of logicians, is termed the subject; man animal," the predicate; and "is," the copula. The Subject is in every instance that which is spoken about, that with which something is pronounced to agree or disagree, that of which (2.) Into concrete and abstract.-When a term stands for a something is affirmed or denied. The name of Predicate (a word thing it is called concrete; when for an attribute of a thing, derived from the Latin, and meaning "to assert ") is given to abstract. Thus "wise," "black," ," "man," are of the former that which is said of the subject, that which is pronounced to class; and "wisdom," "blackness," "humanity," of the latter. agree or disagree with it, that which is affirmed or denied of it. (3.) Into positive, negative, and privative.-A term is posi- The Copula is the term which indicates the act of judgment, tive which denotes the presence of a certain attribute-e.g., which pronounces whether the subject and predicate agree with " patience," man," seeing;" and one which denotes the one another or not. This must always be "is" or "is not;" absence of an attribute is called either negative or privative, and if the predicate and copula are combined together into one according as the thing is considered as one which might be word, as in the proposition "the fire burns," it may be resolved expected to possess the particular attribute or not. Thus into the copula and participle-e.g., "the fire is burning." The "impatient," "not-man," are negative terms; but "blind" is substantive verb "to be" when thus employed as a copula, it privative, because, in addition to denoting the absence of the may be remarked, does not necessarily include the idea of real attribute "sight," it also implies that that is an attribute which existencee.g., the centaur is a fictitious animal," in which the human being or animal to which the term may be applied sentence the copula joins together two terms, each of which might be expected to have had. stands for a non-existent object. 66 66 (4) Into absolute and relative.-A term is absolute which denotes an object considered by itself, without being viewed in relation to other objects. "Man," for instance, does not imply in its signification the existence of any other object than the one for which it stands. Hence it is called absolute. A relative term, on the other hand, denotes an object viewed in relation to some other object, which, in its turn, is viewed in relation to the first, and has a name given to it from the relation between the two. Thus, "father" and "son," "ruler" and "subject," "longer" and "shorter," are relatives; and each term in the different pairs is called the correlative of the other. Propositions are divided into several classes, the first and most obvious division being into affirmative and negative. An affirmative proposition is one in which the predicate is affirmed of the subject, and a negative one in which the predicate is denied of the subject. Thus, "lead is heavy" is affirmative; "stones are not light," negative. This is called a division according to quality. 66 We may also divide propositions into categorical and hypothetical. The former of these simply assert that the predicate does or does not agree with the subject-e.g., man is mortal," "the Bible is not of human origin." The latter (to borrow the words (5.) Into con-notative and non-connotative. - These words of Archbishop Whately) make their assertion under a condition (which are derived from the Latin) mean "marking along with,"-e.g., "if the world is not the work of chance, it must have had and "not marking along with," respectively. The first name is an intelligent maker;" or with an alternative-e.g., "either applied to terms which, besides denoting an object, serve also to mankind are capable of rising into civilisation unassisted, or mark or imply some attribute of that object. Terms to which the first beginning of civilisation must have come from the latter name is given denote the object in the same manner above." The name of conditional is given to such a proas the former; but do not, like them, imply in their signification position as the first of these two last examples, and that of disany attribute of the objects for which they stand. Thus, junctive to the second. There is also a further classification of "white," "virtuous," capital of England," "Emperor of categorical propositions. Some of them are called pure, such France," are all connotative terms, as in addition to serving to as those given above, which make the assertion of agreement mark and stand for the particular things or people to which or disagreement simply; while others, which have some adverb they are applied, they also con-note at the same time the attri- or qualifying word attached to the predicate, denoting the butes of "whiteness," "virtue," "being the capital of Eng- manner in which the subject and predicate agree or disagree, land," "being the Emperor of France," which belong to them. are called modal. Whiteness,' "virtue," "London," "Napoleon," are, on the contrary, of the class of non-connotatives, as each denoting an object only, without serving also to mark any particular attribute thereof. It will appear, from what has been already said upon abstract and concrete terms, that all concrete common terms must belong to the former class, and all abstract common terms to the latter. (6.) Into univocal and equivocal.--Strictly speaking, these are not two kinds of terms, but two modes of employing them. A term is applied univocally with respect to all objects to which it can be applied in the same sense. It is applied equivocally with respect to all objects to which it can be applied in different senses-e.g., "stone" is applied univocally when it is used of granite, limestone, sandstone, etc., but equivocally when it is ap. plied to some one of these, and to a certain measure of weight. By way of recapitulation in a tabular form, we may say, then, that terms may be classed as follows: There are several other divisions both of terms and of the method of employing them which it is unnecessary to enumerate here. Those given above are the principal, and will be sufficient to enable the reader to understand the remarks which follow. We have next to consider propositions. A Proposition is, as has been already said, a "judgment expressed in words," or we may describe it as a sentence which pronounces that one of two objects or ideas agrees or disagrees with the other-i.e., as a sentence which affirms or denies. Let us take a very simple Propositions must also be either true or false; but this is a matter which, to speak accurately, falls not within the province of Logic, but within that of the particular subject-matter about which the proposition makes some assertion. If it were to be considered otherwise, the logician, as such, would be required to possess an accurate and intimate acquaintance with every branch of human knowledge. 66 Besides this, Propositions are also divided into Universal, Particular, Indefinite, and Singular. A universal proposition is one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole of the subject-i.e., of all the things denoted by it; and a particu lar, one in which the predicate is affirmed or denied of only a part. "All men are mortal" is an example of the one; some men are vicious," of the other. Where, however, it is left undetermined by the mere form of the sentence, whether it is the whole or only a part of the subject which is spoken of, as is mortal," the proposition is termed indefinite. A singular proposition is one in which the subject is the name of an individual, or a proper name-e.g., "Garibaldi is a patriot." The division of propositions into universal and particular is one according to quantity, as it is termed; but before passing from it there is one other observation which must be made. The classification of Propositions given above may be shown in a tabular form thus : (1) Affirmative. Negative. man A term is said to be distributed when it is taken in its whole extent-i.e., when it is used to stand for all the objects which it can signify; and undistributed, if used only for a part of them. Hence, from what has been said above, it will appear plain that the subject is distributed in all universal propositions, but never in singulars. In other words, the quantity of the proposition determines the distribution of the subject. The distribution, however, of the predicate depends upon a different consideration. This is regulated not by the quantity but by the quality of the proposition. A little reflection will make this clear. When we say "all are men mortal," what we are really doing is thiswe are speaking of all the objects signified by the term " man,' and affirming of them that they are mortal-i.e., that they belong to the class of mortal objects. But in so doing we are not dealing at all with the rest of the class of mortal beings besides man-e.g., birds and beasts; we are leaving them out of consideration altogether, and the proposition would be equally true whether or not there were any other mortal beings besides In other words, we are using the term mortal, the predicate of the proposition, in an undistributed sense; and this takes place in every affirmative proposition, whether universal or particular. In negatives, however, the case is otherwise. Let us take as an example, "no vice is useful." Here we are really speaking of the whole class of objects to which the term "useful" is applicable, and denying that "vice" can be found amongst any of them, that any part of the predicate agrees with the subject. Hence the predicate is always distributed in a negative proposition, for the simple reason that if any part of that for which the predicate stands were to agree with the subject, and not disagree with it, the proposition would not be true. The result may be thus summed up. (1.) All universals (and no particulars) distribute the subject. (2.) All negatives (and no affirmatives) distribute the predicate. men. Having thus given some account of the most important classifications of propositions, it will be more convenient to say a few words upon another subject (which could not, perhaps, have been so readily understood at an earlier period), before proceeding to consider the different relations which propositions bear to one another. We have already explained what is signified by universal terms; but the reader must also learn that these have, from the time of the earliest treatises upon Logic, been divided into five classes, called predicables, termed respectively "genus," "species," "difference," "property," and "accident." 66 A genus may be described as a universal term which contains under its signification that of two or more other universal terms. In this way "animal" is to be regarded as a genus, as comprehending under the idea for which it stands the ideas represented by the other universal terms "man," "beast,' 37 66 bird," etc. A species is a universal term which is contained under another more universal term-e.g., man is a species of the genus "animal," as forming a part of what it comprehends. It is to be noticed that the same term may often be regarded as genus or species, according as it is considered with reference to the terms which it contains, or those under which it is contained. Thus " "" man is a species of the more universal term "animal," but a genus when regarded as containing under it the less universal terms or species 66 "white man,' negro," "European," American," etc. A genus which is so comprehensive as to be contained under no other is called the highest genus; and a species which, on the other hand, contains no species under it, but merely comprises individuals, is called the lowest species. All between these are known by the names of sub-alternate genera or species. 27 66 A difference is the name given to the attribute which distinguishes a particular species from all the other species which are included under the same genus. Thus, “rational" is the difference which distinguishes the species "man from the other species included under the genus "animal." And if we define "man as a "rational animal," we have what is called a logical definition-i.e., one made up of the genus and essential difference. A property is the name of an attribute found in all the individuals of a species, and which, though not of the essence of the species, is necessarily joined to it-e.g., "being influenced by motives" is a property of " man," necessarily following from his being "rational." An accident is an attribute which, though not necessarily joined to the difference, is yet found in some of the individuals of the species. It may be inseparable-i.e., found in all the individuals of the species, though not necessary to their existence as suche.g., "blackness" in crows; or separable-i.e., not universally found in the species-i.e., not amongst all the individuals or not in the same individuals at all times-e.g., "blackness" or "sleeping " in men." In our next lesson we shall proceed with the consideration of the relations which the different kinds of propositions bear to one another. THE external fleshy covering of the skeleton is composed of a large number of separate portions, called muscles. A muscle is formed of the aggregation of a number of small bundles of reddish fibres, which, in their turn, are bound together by fibrous tissue. There are two great varieties of muscular structure in the body-the muscles of animal life, or voluntary muscles, which are the muscles proper; and the muscles of organic life, or involuntary muscles. The structural distinction between the two classes is that the fibres of the first, when examined under the microscope, present a number of fine dark parallel markings, but the fibres of the involuntary muscles present no such ap pearance. The latter derive their name from the fact that they are concerned in the performance of the functions of organic life, and act independently of the will; they form the muscular walls of the digestive canal, of the windpipe and its divisions, of the ducts of glands, of the blood-vessels, and of some other parts; they also enter largely into the composition of the skin, causing by their contraction that peculiar sensation called goose-skin. There are other muscles which should be included in this class, if we consider their functions and independence of mental control-such is the heart, which is a hollow muscle, composed of the striped fibres of the voluntary class, but acting entirely independent of the will, and performing one of the chief functions of organic life. The division is, indeed, rather an arbitrary one, as the voluntary muscles constantly perform involuntary actions, and the involuntary ones are frequently affected by the will or other acts of the mind. The chief characteristic property of muscles is their clasticity and power of contraction, either by direction of the will or the application of a stimulus. During the process the muscle appears to swell up, becoming rounder and harder; the bulk of the muscle is not increased, but its fibres are shortened and become more tense. By the act of contraction a considerable amount of heat is evolved, whether from chemical action or mechanical friction of the fibres is uncertain; in this we find an explanation of the origin of part, at least, of the increase of temperature that is produced by active exercise. The voluntary muscles are the organs of locomotion; and if we consider the manifold and diverse movements of which the body is capable, we shall be prepared to find them very numerous; they exceed four hundred in number, and vary much in form and size. As a rule, they are thick in the centre, which is free, and end in thinner tendons, composed of white fibrous tissue, where they are connected with the bones. In the neighbourhood of some of the joints, and where a muscle passes over a prominence of bone, and by its action would be likely to cause an injurious amount of friction, little membranous bags containing fluid, and called bursa (French bourse, a purse), are interposed; these enable the muscle to glide more easily over the opposing surface. There are two principles upon which the muscles may be arranged for consideration-namely, location and action. Thus we might describe the muscles of the face, the car, or the eye. On the other hand, we might speak of the muscles of mastication, respiration, or articulation; a combination of the two will be most adapted to show the general actions of the muscles, and HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. avoid repetition. We shall speak, then, of the muscles according to their location in the great divisions of the body-the head and neck, the trunk, and the extremities-indicating in each region the peculiar functions of the various groups of muscles. The muscles of the head and face are extremely numerous and complex. Each of the organs of sense has its special group, which govern its actions, and, in combination with some special muscles of the face, produce those movements, wonderful in their number as in the fineness of their gradations, which alter the expression of the countenance. The most complex group is that connected with the tongue, which is itself but a mass of muscular fibre; by these all the changes of its form and position necessary in the performance of swallowing and speaking are produced. In size, the muscles of mastication excel the others; these run from the upper jaw and under surface and sides of the head, and are inserted into the lower jaw, which they draw up, and from side to side against the fixed upper jaw, cansing the triturating action necessary for the reduction of the food. The muscles connected with deglutition are situated in the neck, and are very numerous; whilst inside the larynx or windpipe is a small group of muscles which make tense or relax the vocal cords, and thus govern the voice. The muscles of the trunk are those that are special to the trunk, and those which connect it with the head and with the extremities. In the back they are arranged in five layers. Some of them pass upwards, to be inserted into the back and sides of the head, which they support in its erect position and turn from side to side. Others, special to the trunk, perform the same office for the spinal column; these run the whole length of the spine, and are numerous and powerful. Several strong muscles connect the upper extremity with the trunk. These either draw the arm upwards and backwards, or, when the arm is fixed, as in climbing, draw the body upwards; in this they are powerfully aided by the abdominal muscles, presently to be noticed. The interspaces of the ribs are filled in by a number of small muscles, one set of which raises the ribs and another depresses them. Over these is a large powerful muscle, which rises by fleshy digitations from nine of the ribs, and is inserted into the scapula; this strongly raises the ribs, and is the most powerful of all the external respiratory muscles. Assisting this are two muscles which run from the front of the thorax to the upper part of the humerus, and also some of the muscles of the neck. Acting in opposition to them are the abdominal muscles, which are arranged laterally in three layers; in the centre are two long, straight muscles-these enclose the abdominal cavity, the capacity of which by their contraction they diminish, and compress the organs of the abdomen, forcing upwards the muscular floor of the thorax, and so diminishing the capacity of the chest. The only other muscular agent of the respiratory function to be mentioned is the most important one, the diaphragm, which, as has been said, forms the division betwixt the cavities of the thorax and abdomen. It is a large plane of muscular fibres attached all round to the circumference of the thorax, and by strong tendons to the front of the spinal column. In the centre it has a tendinous portion, to support the heart. By the action of this muscle the size of the chest is greatly altered; during inspiration it pushes down the abdominal viscera to the extent of two or three inches, and thus enlarges the chest. It is, indeed, the most powerful agent for this purpose. The muscles connecting the trunk with the lower extremity are many in number, some of them run from the front of the spinal column, others from the pelvis to the femur. They are mostly large and powerful. It is to the great size and strength of one set, that rises from the posterior surface of the ossa innominata, that man owes his ability to assume and retain the crect posture. In the arm the muscles are arranged in two groups, one on the front which bends the arm, the other along the back which extends or straightens the arm. In the fore-arm the same rule applies, only here there are additional ones to rotate the arm, and execute the movements of the hand. The two long flexor muscles of the hand run along the front of the fore-arm into the hand, one lying under the other, and each divides into four tendons; those of the superficial one are inserted into the middle bones or phalanges of the fingers, and those of the deep into the extreme phalanges; just before the tendons of the superficial ones are inserted, they are split, to allow the tendon 191 of the deeper muscle to pass through to the further phalanx. By this means power and space are both economised. The tendons of the muscles are held in their places at the wrist by a circular band of fibrous tissue called the annular ligament. In the lower extremity we find somewhat similar sets of muscles to those of the upper; but here, of course, the extensors are on the front of the leg and thigh, and the flexors at the back; the muscles generally are much larger than those of the arm. The muscles of the calf, the bulk of which is composed but of one, are inserted by the tendo Achillis into the heel, on which lever they draw powerfully in the various modes of progression. The arrangement of the annular ligament and of the flexor tendons is similar to that of the hand, with an important exception, that the muscles do not divide into tendons until much nearer their insertion, and are connected by a strong slip with the flexor of the great toe. The result of this is that the fingers have much greater individuality of action than the toes; for whilst in the hand the thumb can be freely bent without influencing the fingers, in the foot, if the great toe is flexed, all the toes bend with it. We must now pass on to the last division of this portion of our subject. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system is generally described as consisting of two parts-the cerebro-spinal system and the ganglionic or sympathetic system. Each of these may be divided into nerve centres, and nerve cords diverging from those centres to supply the different parts of the body. There are two kinds of nerve structure, one called the white matter or fibrous nervous matter, which is composed of two kinds of fibres, and constitutes nearly the whole of the substance of the nerve cords, and also enters largely into the constitution of the nerve centres; the other, which is soft, of a reddish-grey colour, called the vesicular or grey nervous matter, is composed of vesicles or corpuscles, and is found collected in masses in the great nerve centres and the ganglia. The nerves are round flattened cords, connected at one end with the nerve centres, and dividing and subdividing until they are ultimately distributed to all parts of the body; they are divided according to their functions into two classes-the motor nerves, which are those that carry the mandates of the will to the parts they supply, and are thus the agents through which all the movements of the body are performed; and the sensory nerves, which carry back to the nerve centres the impressions made by any stimulus at the seat of their distribution. By these the mind becomes conscious of all external sensations. The sensory nerves include a sub-class, the nerves of special sense-viz., the nerves of hearing, seeing, tasting, and smelling. The cerebro-spinal system consists of the spinal cord, the brain, and the nerves proceeding from them. The spinal cord is a cylindrical mass of nerve matter; in the adult it is usually from sixteen to seventeen inches in length, and weighs. when divested of its membranes and nerves, about an ounce and a half; it occupies the upper two-thirds of the spinal canal, extending from the occipital foramen above, through which it is continuous, by a special portion called the medulla oblongata, with the brain, to the first lumbar vertebra below. In common with the brain, it is enclosed by three membranes. The external one, called the dura mater, which is a dense fibrous structure of considerable strength, lines the inside of the spinal canal and the bones of the skull. Closely investing the cord and brain is another membrane of a much more delicate texture, the pia mater; and interposed between this and the dura mater is a thin, delicate membranous sac, containing fluid called the arachnoid (spider's web). If a section of the spinal cord is made it is found to be composed of the white nervous matter, enclosing a comparatively small crescentic mass of grey matter. From the sides of the cord are given off thirty-one pairs of nerves, each of which arises from two roots. The roots coming from the anterior portion of the cord are motor; those from the posterior, on each of which is a ganglion, or collection of grey matter, are sensory. Immediately after they emerge from the spinal canal the two roots coalesce to form one nerve cord, so that it follows that each of the spinal nerves is compound, having both sensory and motor functions. The upper cervical nerves join together to form what is called a plexus, |