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LESSONS IN BOTANY.

LESSONS IN BOTANY.-XLIII.

SECTION CXXII.-LICHENS (continued). ENOUGH has been said to show that the family of Lichens is by no means deficient either in interest or in beauty; but a tribe which awaits us on the moor, the Cladonias, will, we think, be found more interesting than anything we have yet seen. Those of this tribe are of a character in some respects quite different from most of the varieties which we have described, inasmuch as they grow on the earth, and bear much the appearance as well as in general the name of mosses.

Closely matting the surface of the ground all over the side of the hill, and between the bushes on that little bit of coppice, lies the pretty and valuable species, the Cladonia rangeferina, or reindeer moss. This is branched and hoary, growing many

inches deep, and in early spring exhibiting a most exquisitely lovely appearance, as the halfmelted hoar-frost glitters in the sunshine, and seems to tip its multitudinous points with clusters of diamonds. This species covers acres, indeed anccessive miles of ground, in Lapland, especially on those tracts where pine-forests have been burned, and supplies food for the reindeer throughout the long northern winters. Its fruit is borne at the extreme points of the branches in brown clusters. On the banks and walls which divide and flank the moor, are found several other varieties of Cladonis growing in the peat.

There is the beautiful greyeup, or chalice-moss, which sends up from a cluster of grey thalli lovely little cups each about large enough to contain a drop of water, and from the edges of these cups proceed, in the course of time, clusters of other and smaller cups, lifted on long foot-stalks, which again occasionally branch and bear more cups at their points, the edges of all of which are eventually furnished with branches of brown, shining apothecia. This is Cenomyce piridata; and in the same situations we shall

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(Fig. 297), is sulphur-coloured, and grows in branching tufts three inches high, and bearing scarlet fruit, at the roots of trees. But we must forbear, for to attempt to enumerate the varied and capricious appearances of all the species of this interesting genus would be in vain, and we must content ourselves with giving figures of two other varieties, namely, Borrera furfuracea (Fig. 298) and Sphærophoron coralloides (Fig. 299), for there remain two of the five tribes of lichens which we have as yet not noticed.

The fourth tribe, the Athalami, contains but one genus, the Lepraria; these are all yellow, and form a sort of leprous crust on rocks, old pales, or trees, the mode of their fructification being as yet unknown.

The fifth tribe, or Pseudo-Lichens, contains some very interesting species: the first genus, or Opegrapha, is named so from two Greek words signifying a chink, and to write, because the shields or apothecia are cracks upon the surface of the thallus, which look like strange Oriental characters on a pale ground. They are almost always found on the smooth bark of trees, varying in colour, some being black, others white, olive, grey, green, or yellow. There is another genus, Graphis, which is even more remarkable for its resemblance to written characters than Opegrapha; Graphis scripta (Fig. 300) and Graphis serpentina, but especially the former, being strikingly like the Chinese character.

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find another species, Cenomyce 295, FRINGED CUP MOSS (CLADONIA FIMBRIATA). 296. CENOMYCE BELLI

DIFLORA. 297. CENOMYCE DEFORMIS.

298, BORRERA FURFURACEA. 299. SPHEROPHORON CORALLOIDES. 300. GRAPHIS SCRIPTA 301. CUDBEAR (PARMELIA TARTAREA).

But in our admiration of the external character of lichens, we must not forget to take a glance at their hidden qualities, nor withhold our praise to Him who has given to such simple, and often unnoticed plants, qualities which render them exceedingly valuable to man, and make some of the species highly important articles in

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commerce.

We have noticed the value of the reindeer-moss, or, as it is frequently called, Lapland moss, as the main food of the reindeer; and there is no necessity to say much of that well-known kind, the Iceland fimbriata, even more beautiful moss, Cetraria Islandica, which than Cenomyce pixidata, for its is sold in all chemists' shops, caps are elegantly fringed at and so frequently used as an the edges, and it is furnished article of diet for consumpwith delicately crenate thalli, tive and weak patients. The or leaves of a silvery greenish-white, which cluster on the Rocella tinctoria,. or true dyer's lichen, is the orchil of podetia, and on the outside of the cup (Fig. 295). There are commerce, celebrated for yielding a fine purple dye, for many other species of Cladonia and Cenomyce, all likely to be which the cudbear (Parmelia tartarea, Fig. 301) is but a found on the moor. The autumn is the season in which poor substitute, though one which is, nevertheless, in much they are in perfection, although we still find them in situ, for request, and by collecting which many an industrious lichens are very slow in growth and in decay, and will remain peasant in the Highland district gains his living. This for years with very little variation in their appearance. Several lichen is scraped from the rocks with an iron hoop, and of these tribes bear fruit of the most brilliant scarlet hue, as sold in large quantities to the Glasgow merchants. It is no bright as small coral beads, and the silvery grey of their setting easy process to obtain it, for to dislodge lichens of the crusting makes them more admirable than the jewels of a bride; indeed, growth which have once established themselves on rocks and our jewellers have overlooked a tribe which might furnish many stones is hard work. They not unfrequently take up their a beautiful type for ornaments, either for a fair lady's dress, or position on grave-stones, and effect in a few years that which, for the decoration of her room or table. The varied forms of without their aid, would scarcely be accomplished in centuries these genera deserve some special notice: some, as we have-namely, the total obliteration of the name, dates, and other seen, are cup-like; one takes exactly the form of the horn of inscriptions which had been on the stones. The simplest and the stag-this is the Cenomyce cervicornis, and is found on the surest mode of dislodging the foe from such positions, is to Pentland and other high hills; another, Cenomyce bellidiflora, or cover the stone on which they have congregated with earth, daisy-flowered cenomyce (Fig. 296), grows in stiff scaly tufts on turf, or other matter, which by depriving them of their main the tops of lofty mountains; whilst another, Cenomyce deformis supporters, air and light, will soon clear off the incumbrance,

VOL. V.

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10. The stars are less brilliant than the moon.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

and make the inscriptions legible. There are several lichens | The carpenter is as rick as the printer. 9. The daughters of the besides the orchil and the cudbear which are used as dyes, and German woman are less culpable than the daughters of the others besides the Iceland moss which are eaten. The Tripe-de- Spanish woman. roche (Umbilicaria pustulata) is one of these. It is very beauti-11. The lion is stronger than the horse. 12. The judge is wiser than the physician. ful n appearance, out one would scarcely suppose it possible that any nourishment could be obtained from such a mere scaly sort of crust as it forms. It is, however, a valuable article of diet to the Canadian hunters; and some English travellers (Dr. Richardson and his company) were for a long time sustained by this strange food alone, when wandering amidst those northern snows in pursuit of scientific objects.

On rocks by the sea we find many species of lichens, particularly such as belong to the genera Lecidea, Endocarpon, Urceolaria, etc.; but some of the beautiful genus Ramalina are also found in such localities, and among them that very pretty one, the Ramalina scopulorum, or the ivory lichen.

We must now leave the consideration of this interesting but almost unknown family; but before we do so we would remind our readers, that there is no branch of knowledge which does not hold out some reward which he who studies it with care cannot fail to attain; and that the health and pleasure gained by the brisk and varied walks to which the pursuit of mosses and lichens invito their votaries, at a season when some incentive to leave the fireside is especially needful, will well reward them for a little effort in the pursuit of this branch.

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DEGREES OF COMPARISON (continued). MOST adjectives may have their superlatives formed by muy prefixed, or by the ending ísimo. There are a few, however, such as those ending with ial and antepenults (i.e. those accented on the last syllable but two) ending with co, go, lo, which form their superlative absolute always with muy; as, social, social; muy social (and not socialísimo), very social. As a general rule, adjectives of many syllables form their superlative absolute by muy and not with ísimo. The superlative of mucho, muck, is always muchísimo.

The superlative relative is formed by placing the definite article before mas (more) or ménos (less), and putting these before the adjective; as

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EXERCISE 7.-SPANISH-ENGLISH.

1. La muger es muy amable. 2. El juez es muy viejo. 3. El criado es muy culpable. 4. La lengua española1 es bella y muy armoniosa. 5. La luna es muy brilliante. 6. Las estrellas son muy brilliantes. 7. Las torres son altísimas. 8. Las Españoles son muy sobérbias. 9. El juez es muy escrupuloso. 10. La casa es altísima. 11. El buey es tan fuerto como el caballo. 12. El pintor es mas robusto que el impresor. 13. Las criadas de la Española son mas garrulas que los criados del Aleman. 14. El sol es mas brilliante que la luna. 15. La luna es ménos brilliante que el sol. 16. La hija del médico es ménos hermosa que la hija del juez. 17. Las casas no son tan altas como las

The personal pronouns are-yo, I; tú, thou; usted, you; él, ella, ello, he, she, it; nosotros (masc.), nosotras (fem.), we; vosotros (masc.), vosotras (fem.), ye; ustedes, you; ellos (masc.), ellas (fem.), they; so, himself.

Nos is sometimes used in the nominative for nosotros; as, we (nos) the representatives of Mexico.

Vos is used only in addressing the Deity or persons of very superior rank.

Usted is the only word with which persons address and are addressed in ordinary conversation in Spanish. It is a contrac tion of vuestra merced (your worship); and though it is always to be translated by the second person (you) in English, it is, of course, of the third person, and requires its corresponding pos sessive pronoun and the verb to which it may be the nominative to be in the third person. In writing, usted is nearly always abbreviated into v., vm., vmd., vd., V., Vm., VM., Vtra., or Md. ; and the plural (ustedes) into vs., vms., vmds., VV., Vms., Vmds. The personal pronouns have two forms of the objective case, the direct and the indirect, the first governed by the verb or the preposition to (understood), and the second always governed by a preposition before it (expressed); as

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2nd Obj.

Á él, to him.

Nom.

Ella, she.

1st Obj.
2nd Obj.

La, her; le, to her.

Á ella, to her.

Nom.

Ello, it.

1st Obj.
2nd Obj.

Lo, it.

Á ello, to it.

Nom.

Ellos, they.

Los, them; les, to them.
Á ellos, to them.

THIRD PERSON FEMININE,

Ellas, they.

Las, them; les, to them.
Á ellas, to them.

THIRD PERSON FOR INDEFINITE OBJECTS.

THIRD PERSON Vmd., your worship, you. 1st Obj. Le, your worship, to you. 2nd Obj. Á vmd., to your worship,

to you.

(Wanting in the Plural.)

IN ADDRESSING.
Vmds., your worships, you.
Les, your worships, to you.
Á vmds., to your worships, to

you.

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torres.

EXERCISE 8.-ENGLISH-SPANISH.

1. The mountain is very high. 2. The male-servant is very old. 3. The Spanish language' is elegant and very harmonious. 4. The sun is most brilliant. 5. The stars are very brilliant. 6. The painter is as proud as the judge. 7. The horse is as strong as the ox, 8.

Negoles el cielo este gozo,

Denied-them heaven this pleasure. The first objective case is employed in Spanish, when in Eng lish either the verb or the preposition to, expressed or under stood, governs the personal pronouns; asPablo me mandó, Paul commanded | Juan te dió un libro, John gave (to)

me.

thee a book.

We have here used only the preposition á before the indirect or second objective, though any other preposition would require the same ease; as, de él, por ellos, para mí.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY..

When in English the personal pronouns of the third person are governed by the verb, in Spanish le and los for the masculine, and la, las, for the feminine, are used; as—

La muger le vio, the woman saw him.

El viajante los halló, the traveller found them.

When in English the personal pronouns of the third person are governed by the preposition to, expressed or understood, in Spanish le and les are used for both genders; as—

El juez le dijo, the judge said to Los libreros les dieron libros, the him (or to-her). booksellers gave (to) them books.

The second objective is always used after comparatives; asTe quiero mas que á el,

I love thee more than him.

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A personal pronoun of the second objective case is placed are rich," if addressed to one person, would be, vmd. es rico after a preposition; as

Cayó temor sobre a, fear fell upon El pintor lo hizo para mí, the painter made it for me.

him.

If in English two objective cases of personal pronouns are in the same sentence, one of them governed by the preposition to, understood, and the other by a verb, the one governed by the She found them. 4. He wrote to-them some letters. 5. I am poor and preposition is placed first; as

María me lo dió, Mary (to) me it | Pedro les la llevó, Peter (to) them gave (or, Mary gave it to me). her brought (or, brought her to them). If the pronoun be reflective-that is, if the nominative and objective cases refer to the same person-the reflective pronoun must come before the other, if another be used in the same sentence; as

El cura se me dirigió,

The rector addressed himself to me. When, in the second objective case, any one of the pronouns mi, ti, sí, is preceded by the preposition con (with), this preposition is prefixed to the pronoun, and the syllable go affixed, the whole forming one word; as

Juan vino conmigo, John came with- Ella vino contigo, she came withthee.

me.

The first objective case of the personal pronouns comes after infinitives, imperatives, and gerunds* of the verb, forming one word with the verb; asDanos dinero, give-us money. Higame vmd. una casaca, makeme, your worship, a coat.

Entonces Pedro tomandole aparte, comenzó á reñirle, then Peter, taking-him apart, began to chidehim.

When one verb governs another in the infinitive, the objective pronoun may come before the first or after the second verb; as

El Aleman la va á ver; or, el Ale- The German her goes to see; or, the man va á verla, German goes to see-her.

The first or second person plural of the imperative drops its firal letter when nos or os is joined to it; asSentámonos (and not sentámos- | Guardáos (and not guardádos), Dos), let-us-seat-ourselves. guard-yourselves.

Ello, and its objective case lo, are properly used for a noun to which we cannot assign any gender; and though not strictly correct, the practice is allowed of using lo for the masculine le, this pronoun be directly governed by a verb. Personal pronouns must always agree with the nouns for which they are substituted in gender, person,

Algano, some, any. Comprar, (to) buy. Coalianza, confidence.

VOCABULARY.

Hizo, (he) made, (he)
did.
Mucho, much, many.
Nosotros somos, we are.
Para, for.
Pedro, Peter.

Dar, (to) give.

Hablar, (to) speak.

Hablaron, (they) spoke.

Traed, bring (ye).

Hablo, (he) spoke.

and number.

Tú eres, thou art.
Ver, (to) see.
Vinieron, (they) camo.
Vino (he) came.
Vió, (he) saw.
Yot soy, I am.
Yo voy, I go, I am going.

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Yo soy pobre y viejo. 7. Tú eres muy sábio. 8. El es ignorante. 9. Nosostros somos fuertes y ricos. 10. El pintor te dió una cuchara de plata. 11. La muger nos vió. 12. El carpintero nos habló. 13. Los Españoles le hablaron. 14. El juez tiene mucha confianza en vd. 15. Pedro le dió el libro. 16. El Aleman no le dió dinero. 17. La Alemana no le habló. 18. La muger no me habló. 19. El pintor no te vió., 20. El carpintero no los halló. 21. Yo voy á darle un libro. 22. V. es rico. 23. VV. son pobres. 24. Vds, son sobérbios.

In forming a negative sentence, the adverb no must come not only before the verb, but even before personal pronouns of the first objective case; as, Juan no me lo dijo, John not to-me it said-i.e., John said it not to-me.

Vmd (pronounced usted), though of the third person, is equivalent to the English word you; thus the sentence you

(your worship is rich); if addressed to more than one person, vms. son ricos (your worships are rich). When females are referred to, the feminine form of the adjective must be used. EXERCISE 10.-ENGLISH-SPANISH.

as, amando, loving.

A gerund is used in Spanish as the present participle in English; For the present, we shall use the nominative personal pronouns with the verb, though they are not in general required.

8. He

11. The

1. Peter wrote me two letters. 2. The painter gave him a book. 3.
old. 6. The judge spoke to-them. 7. Thou art very rich.
is wise. 9. We are ignorant. 10. They are strong and rich.
painter gave thee a silver spoon.
12. The woman saw us. 13. The
carpenter spoke to us. 14. The Spanish woman spoke to him. 15.
The physician saw him. 16. The Frenchwoman saw them (masc.).
17. The German woman saw them (fem.). 18. The carpenter made it
have much confidence in him. 21. The Englishman made it for me.
(lo) for him. 19. The painter has confidence in her. 20. The printers
22. You gave me a book. 23. You are very wise. 24. You are hungry.
25. You have a house. 26. You (plur.) are thirsty. 27. You (plur.)
are not proud. 28. You (plur.) love the truth. 29. The physician
has much confidence in you. 30. I am-going to give you (le) a book.

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN SPANISH.—III.
EXERCISE 5.

1. The way is narrow. 2. The house is spacious. 3. The women
are proud. 4. The Englishmen have no money. 5. The English women
are not hungry. 6. The Spaniards are not thirsty. 7. The American
women are handsome. 8. The books are new. 9. A good general is
the soul of an army. 10. The Frenchman is poor and proud.
11. The physician's friend is ignorant. 12. The judge is wise and
rich.
14. The Americans
13. A false tongue does not love truth.
love money.
15. The painter's sons are strong and robust. 16. The
poor men are hungry.

EXERCISE 6.

1. El Frances escribió cartas à la Española. 2. Los Americanos son amigos de los Ingleses. 3. El camino del impio es tenebroso. 4. Las hijas del Españolo son lindas. 5. Los libros son nuevos. 6. La casa del medico es espaciosa. 7. Los caballos del Ingles son fuertes. 8. Los hijos del juez son probres y sobérbios. 9. La hija de la Francesa es sobérbia é ignorante. 10. Las hermanas del pintor son ricas y hermosas. 11. Un buen hombre ama la verdad. 12. La lengua falaz no ama la verdud. 13. Los Españoles y los Americanos aman dinero. 14. Las cucharas de plata son nuevas. 15. El camino es estrecho. 16. El hijo del juez es malo é ignorante. 17. Los impresores son ricos. 18. El criado del medico es robusto.

LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.-XLII.

AUSTRALASIA.

THE south-western division of Oceania, to which the name of Australasia or Melanesia has been given by geographers, belongs almost entirely to the British Empire. The superficial area of the land that is contained in it has been estimated at very nearly 3,430,000 square miles, while the population is certainly not less than 2,500,000. Within the boundaries of Australasia, which were given in detail in our last lesson, are comprised the continent of Australia, Tasmania, the three islands collectively called New Zealand, the Auckland Isles, Antipodes Island, Norfolk Island, the Chatham Isles, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Queen Charlotte Isles, Solomon Isles, the Louisiade Archipelage, New Britain, New Ireland, the Admiralty Isles, and Papua or New Guinea, with a few unimportant islets.

Australia, or the great island of New Holland, so called because The most important part of Australasia is the continent of it was discovered by the Dutch. It is bounded on the north by the Arafura Sea, the Gulf of Carpentaria, and Torros Strait; on

the south, by the South Pacific Ocean and Bass Strait; on the east, by the South Pacific Ocean; and on the west by the Indian Ocean. The most northern point of Australia is Cape York, in lat. 10° 43′ S. and long. 142° 29′ E., and the most southern point is Wilson Promontory, in lat. 39° 11′ S. and long. 146° 25' E. The most eastern point is Cape Byron, in lat. 28° 38′ S. and long. 153° 37' E., and the most western point is Steep Point, in lat. 26° 5′ S. and long. 112° 50' E. The greatest breadth of Australia from north to south is about 2,000 miles, and its greatest length from east to west is about 2,500 miles. As the average length and breadth of this continent are considerably less than these extreme measurements, the area or surface of Australia is estimated at about 3,000,000 square miles, or about 1,920,000,000 imperial acres. As the superficial area of Australia is only about 810,000 square miles less than Europe, it follows that this continent is one of the most valuable appanages of the British crown.

The continent of Australia is compact in form, approaching that of the section of a human head and neck, when viewed vertically from east to west; the peninsula which terminates in Cape York representing the nose, and the colony of Victoria, or Port Philip, the back of the head. There are few large inlets of the sea around its shores, so that the interior of this continent to a very large extent is as yet unknown. The only bay of considerable magnitude is called the Gulf of Carpentaria, which is situated on the north between Torres Strait and the waters of the Arafura Sea. In this gulf are situated Groote Eylandt, Wellesley and Pellew Islands. Westward of this gulf are Arnhem Bay, Van Diemen Gulf, and others on the north coast, including Cambridge Gulf, Admiralty Gulf, etc. On the west coast are Dampier Archipelago, Exmouth Gulf, Shark Bay, Geographe Channel, Naturaliste Channel, and Geographe Bay. On the south coast are Tor Bay, King George's Sound, Esperance Bay, Recherche Archipelago, the great Australian Bight with Nuyts Archipelago and Anxious Bay, Spencer Gulf, St. Vincent Gulf, Encounter Bay, Discovery Bay, Portland Bay, Port Philip, Western Port, Corner Inlet, and Bass Strait. On the east coast are Twofold Bay, Jervis Bay, Botany Bay, Port Stephens, Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay, Shoalwater Bay, Repulse Bay, Halifax Bay, Rockingham Bay, Trinity Bay, Princess Charlotte Bay, Temple Bay, and Shelbourne Bay. The Coral Sea contains the "Great Barrier Reef," extending along the northern part of the east coast for a distance of about 1,200 miles from Torres Strait to Hervey Bay, and separated from the coast by distances varying from 15 to 100 miles, the average being about 30 miles. The navigation between this reef and the shore is reckoned tolerably safe, the anchorage for ships being in about twelve fathoms of water.

The Capes and Headlands in this continent are numerous, but few are of much importance. Besides those mentioned already, there are on the north coast Cape Arnhem, Point Dale, and Cape Londonderry; on the west coast, Cape Levesque, North-West Cape, Cape Cuvier, Point Naturaliste, and Cape Leeuwin; on the south coast, Point D'Entrecasteaux, Cape Chatham, Point Hood, Cape le Grand, Cape Catastrophe, Cape Jervis, Cape Bernouilli, Cape Northumberland, Cape Bridgewater, and Cape Otway; and on the east coast are Cape Howe, Sandy Cape, Cape Capricorn, Cape Palmerston, Cape Upstart, Cape Flattery, and Cape Grenville.

The Peninsulas are, Cape York Peninsula, bounded on the west by the Gulf of Carpentaria; Coburg Peninsula, bounded on the south by Van Diemen Gulf; Eyre Land, bounded on the cast by Spencer Gulf; and Yorke Peninsula, bounded on the west by Spencer Gulf. The Islands, which are generally small, and in groups, with the exception of Melville and Bathurst Islands on the north-west, and Kangaroo Island on the south, are the Prince of Wales and Sir R. Bourke groups in Torres Strait; the Wessel and Goulburn groups on the north; the Buccaneer, and the Dampier groups, with Dirk Hartog's Island, on the west; the Recherche and Nuyts Islands on each side of the Great Australian Bight; the Investigator Islands, and those at the entrance to Spencer Gulf; King's Island, Flinders Island, and others in Bass Strait; the Moreton Group, Sandy Islands, with the Northumberland and Cumberland group on the east coast.

Of the Mountains of Australia little is known, excepting those which border the coast. In the colony of Victoria are tuated what are called the Warragong Mountains, or Australian

Alps, of which the highest peak, named Mount Kosciusko, is about 6,500 feet above the level of the sea. The summits of the highest parts of these mountains are covered with perpetual snow. Along the eastern coast, particularly in the colony of New South Wales, there are other ranges of mountains at moderate distances from the sea, which have only been partially explored. The Blue Mountains, which lie to the north of the Australian Alps, are of considerably less elevation, and are intersected by deep and precipitous ravines. Their highest summit is called Mount York, and is 3,292 feet high; their average elevation being upwards of 2,000 feet. The Liverpool chain of mountains lies northward of the Blue Mountains, and is of greater elevation, varying from 2,000 feet to 4,000 feet; Mount Lindesay, the highest peak, being about 5,700 feet above the level of the sea. Between these ranges are undulating and watered regions, and on their western sides are high upland downs, varying from 900 to 2,000 feet in height, such as the Liverpool Plains, the Brisbane Plains, the Darling Downs, etc. West and south-west of the Australian Alps, and within the colony of Victoria, is a hilly and watered country, reckoned more diversified than any part of Australia yet explored. Here are the Australian Pyrenees and Grampians, the summit of Mount William in the latter range being about 4,700 feet above the level of the sea. Flinders range extends from the eastern coast of St. Vincent's Gulf into the interior. The Darling range is parallel to the western shores of Western Australia, some peaks being about 3,000 feet high. The coast of the Great Australian Bight, which lies between Spencer's Gulf and King George's Sound, is low and sandy; whence it is called the desert coast. By far the greater part, however, of this continent is yet unexplored, and from the report of late explorers the interior is deemed as sterile as the desert of Sahara in Africa. This report, indeed, must be deemed partial and unsatisfactory; because the interior was approached only from the south, and in one particular direction. It is evident, therefore, that until it has been approached from the north, east, and west, and in various directions, the report of the sterility of the interior cannot be confirmed.

There are not known to be any very large rivers on this continent; but on the supposition that the whole of its sea-coast has been completely explored, this circumstance alone would argue in favour of the fact that the interior is sterile; as it is to its rivers, in a great measure, that any country owes its fertility. The river Murray rises in the western side of the Australian Alps, flows in a westerly course, dividing the colony of Victoria from that of New South Wales, and then running in a southerly direction, after a course of about 1,200 miles, falls into the sea at Encounter Bay. The principal tributaries of this river are the Murrumbidgee and the Darling; at its junction with the former it is 350 feet broad, and has a depth varying from 12 to 20 feet. Lower down, at its junction with the Darling, it increases in breadth, and from this point to its entrance into Lake Victoria, its breadth varies from 100 to 250 yards, and its depth from 12 to 40 feet. This river is said to drain a surface of more than 200,000 square miles, thus carrying to the sea the waters from a surface more than double that of Great Britain, and equal in magnitude to that of the whole of France. Numerous rivers, whose courses are generally short, flow from the mountains on the east coast into the sea. The names of the principal of these are Shoalhaven, Hawkesbury, Hunter, Hastings, McLeay, Clarence, Richmond, and Brisbane. The largest of these again, the Hawkesbury and the Hunter, have each a course of about 206 miles; the latter is navigable for 50 miles inland, and the Richmond for 70 miles. The chief river on the west coast is Swan River, having a course of about 180 miles. Of the rivers which flow into the sea on the north coast, little is yet known. There are as yet considered to be no lakes of any extent in this continent; such as it has. are formed chiefly by the rains, becoming afterwards marshes. or drying up altogether. The name of Lake Torrens has been given to an immense salt swamp, lying northward of Spencer Gulf. Lakes Alexandrina or Victoria, Albert and Coorong, are expansions of the embouchure of the Murray.

Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, so called from the name of the discoverer of this island, lies to the south of Australia, being separated from it by Bass Strait. It is about 200 miles long from north to south, and about the same in breadth from east to west, having an area of about 26,000 square miles. The

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former of these can be navigated to a distance of 100 miles from the sea, by vessels of thirty tons burden. There is a lake called Taupo, which lies at the height of 1,887 feet above sea-level, and has an area of 300 square miles.

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The Auckland Islands are situated at the distance of about 350 miles south of New Zealand. The largest is 25 miles long, and the area of the whole group 187 square miles. The Chatham Islands are distant about 700 miles eastward of New Zealand.

Of the islands that do not belong to Great Britain in Aus. tralasia, and have not been described at length in our lesson, none are of any importance at present in a commercial point of view. Papua, or New Guinea, which is the largest island in the world next to Borneo, is partly claimed by the Dutch, who trade with the inhabitants for timber used for ornamental purposes, camphor, nutmegs, spices, and the beautiful birds known as "birds of paradise."

The following is a summary of the chief of the British colonies in Australia, giving the superficial extent of each, approximately stated, with the chief town, population, etc., and date of establishment as a colony :

Colonies.

Chief Towns.

WEST AUSTRALIA .Perth

SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Adelaide

VICTORIA

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Melbourne NEW SOUTH WALES Sydney QUEENSLAND Brisbane TASMANIA NEW ZEALAND.

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Rivers, etc., on which the Chief Towns stand.

Approximate Area

in Square Miles.

Approximate No. of Population.

Date of Establish

ment as Colony.

Melville Water. 45,000

Port Philip Botany Bay.

Moreton Bay

16,000 1829

383,830 127,000 1834 86,840 550,000 1850 323,450 366,000 1788

678,000 56,000 1859

Hobart Town Derwent River. 26,200 92,000 1803

CIVIL SERVICE PAPERS.

coasts of this island are generally bold and elevated, presenting high promontories to the surrounding seas. The principal capes or headlands are Cape Grim, the north-west point; Circular Head, on the north; Cape Portland, the north-east point; St. Patrick's Head, Cape Lodi, and Cape Pillar, on the east coast; Tasman Head, the south-eastern extremity of Bruni Island, south-east of Tasmania; South Cape, and South-West Cape; and Rocky Point, Cape Sorel, and West Point, on the west coast. The chief inlets of the sea are Storm Bay, at the mouth of the river Derwent, and further north, Oyster Bay, on the south-east; the mouth of the Tamar on the north; Macquarrie Harbour on the west; and Port Davy on the south-west. The peninsulas are Tasman, east of Storm Bay; Forestier, connected with the former by an isthmus of half a mile's breadth; and Freycinet, on the east side of Oyster Bay. The islands are Bruni, formerly mentioned, which is separated from Tasmania by D'Entrecasteaux Channel; Maria, north of Tasman Peninsala; the Furneaux group, to the north-east; Hunter's group, to the north-west; and several others. The mountains are Wyld Crag, in the middle of Tasmania, which is 4,500 feet high; Table Mountain, behind Hobart Town, 3,750 feet high, and for eight months of the year capped with snow; and Benlomond, in the north-east, 4,200 feet high. The principal rivers are the Derwent and the Tamar; the former, 130 miles long, falls into Storm Bay, and the latter into Bass Strait, admitting vessels of 500 tons at its mouth. The relative positions of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, with their chief towns, are shown in the map of Central Oceania in page 37 of this volume. Norfolk Island, which is annexed to the government of Van Diemen's Land, and lies at the distance of 900 miles from the east coast of Australia, is a penal settlement; it contains an area of about 14 square miles, and has an eminence called Mount Pitt, which rises to the height of 1,050 feet.

New Zealand lies to the south-east of Australia, at the distance of about 1,400 miles; and it is surrounded on all sides by the Pacific Ocean. The most northerly point of this group is North Cape, in lat. 34° 29′ S. and long. 172° 49′ E.; the most southerly southern point, in lat. 47° 13′ S. and long. 167° 27′ E. ; the most easterly, Cape East, in lat. 37° 45′ S. and long. 178° 36 E.; and the most westerly, Cape West, in lat. 45° 54′ S. and long. 166° 10' E. The names of the two large islands are New Ulster and New Munster, and of the smaller one New Leinster; otherwise, they are denominated the North, Middle, and South Islands of New Zealand. The North and Middle

Islands are separated by a channel called Cook Strait; and the Middle and South Islands by Foveaux Strait. The surface of North Island is reckoned about 57,500 square miles; of Middle Island, about 47,850 square miles; and of South Island, about 900 square miles; making in all a surface of 106,250 square miles. New Zealand, therefore, is larger than Great Britain; and, being situated nearer the equator, its climate must (other things being equal) be deemed superior to that of our native country.

As to the inlets of the sea in this group of islands, which nearly correspond to the antipodes (i.e., people whose feet are exactly opposite to ours, when they stand on the surface of the earth) of Great Britain, there are the Bay of Islands, the Gulf of Hauraki, the Bay of Plenty, and Hawke Bay, on the east coast of North Island; in Cook Strait, on the east side, are Palliser Bay, Port Nicholson, and the Harbour of Porirua; and on the west side, Cloudy Bay, Queen Charlotte Sound, Admiralty Bay, Blind Bay, and Massacre Bay. On the east coast of Middle Island are Pegasus Bay, Akaroa Harbour, and Port Otago. On the west and south-west coast of the same are Chalky and Dusky Bays, and Wangaroa, Manukao, and Kaipara Harbours. Cook Strait is about 15 miles broad at the narrowest

part; it is indented on the west side with narrow lochs or arms
of the sea.
The islands in this channel are D'Urville and
Wellington Islands, with the island of Kapiti. The breadth of
Foveaux Strait is, on an average, 14 miles. There are mountain
ranges in the two principal islands of New Zealand, which run
parallel to their east and west coasts. Mount Egmont, on the
western side of North Island, is 8,270 feet high. Ruapahu, a
snowy mountain, is reckoned upwards of 9,000 feet high. In
Middle Island, the snowy peak of Kaikoras rises to the height
of 9,300 feet. Banks Peninsula is a rugged and mountainous
tract in Middle Island. North Island has some rivers, two of
which are 170 miles and 140 miles in length respectively. The

Auckland. Hauraki Gulf

106,250 215,000 1840

CIVIL SERVICE PAPERS.-VIII.

GROUP V.

1. THE SEAMAN'S REGISTER AND RECORD OF SEAMEN.

THIS is a subordinate department of the Board of Trade, and the educational qualifications are the same as for that department. The office is at London Bridge, and the duties of it, called into existence by the Merchant Shipping Act, consist and watching over the interests of the seaman as against his in recording the services and characters of merchant seamen, employers and the officers of ships. Complaints on either side are investigated and recorded by the Registrar, and in the office are compiled many valuable statistics, which serve from time to time as the basis of new regulations on the subject of the treatment of seamen. The muster roll of the naval reserve and all the detail connected therewith is kept in the office.

The patronage of the office is in the President of the Board of Trade, to whom the Registrar-General reports. The quali fications are identical with those of the Board of Trade office, both as regards clerks and messengers.

Salaries:-Temporary clerks, 30s. to 40s. a week; third-class clerks, £100 to £220, by £10 a year; second-class clerks, £250 to £350, by £15 a year; first-class clerks, £380 to £500, by £20 a year; messengers, £65 to £100 a year; porter, £1 a week. The prizes of the office are the inspectorship, with a salary of £500 to £700 a year, by annual increments of £25; and the post of Registrar-general, worth £700 to £900 (and an additional £100 from the Mercantile Marine Fund), by annual increments of £50.

2. STATIONERY OFFICE.

Office and stores at Storey's Gate, Westminster. Function to supply all the public departments with every kind of sta tionery and office small stores; to print, bind, repair, and to do all that an ordinary stationer would do. Formerly each of the public offices supplied itself, receiving a sum of money from the Treasury for the purpose; but it was found that great abuses were favoured by this system, that peculation was rife generally, and that in no case was there any economic administration of

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