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portrays human nature, and appeals to our human sympathies. All the papers devoted to Sir Roger de Coverley are among the most delightful in the whole series. The character of Sir Roger was, in the first instance, roughly sketched out by Steele; but it at once passed into the hands of Addison, and the picture as it stands is the work of his pencil. The lifelike, though very brief sketches of his daily life, his conduct in church, his dealings with his affectionate tenantry, his journey to Londen, his visits to Westminster Abbey, and his impressions from the various scenes and circumstances in which he is placed, are all as fresh and natural as if they had been drawn but yesterday. The description of the old man's death, from the pen of his faithful servant, is one of the most touching passages in all literature. Scarcely inferior to the old country gentleman is Will Honeycomb, the superannuated man about town, who, after the knight, forms the most striking figure in the group of the Spectator's friends. Of the imaginative papers of another class, an admirable example is the celebrated Vision of Mirza."

In no way perhaps has Addison exercised so strong and lasting an influence as by the example of his exquisite style. His language and expression are not only always in harmony with his subject, but they are in marvellously close accord with the whole character of his mind. His style is easy, pure, simple, without effort, but without monotony, admirably ex pressive of the finest shades of thought or feeling, and at the same time perfectly natural. Addison has long and justly been regarded as a model of good English writing, and the effect of his influence upon public taste has been singularly beneficial.

Of Sir Richard Steele we have already had occasion to speak in connection with his illustrious friend and fellow-labourer Addison. And, in fact, his main title to fame with posterity is the fact of his having established those periodicals which became the medium for Addison's genius. Steele was, however, a writer of no mean power himself. He was born in Ireland in 1675; but was educated at the Charterhouse, where he was the schoolfellow of Addison, and where the devoted affection and almost reverential regard which he showed for Addison throughout life commenced. Steele's whole career was one of extravagance, dissipation, and debt, alternating or combined with at least occasional fits of strong religious enthusiasm. In addition to a very large number of papers in the Tatler, Spectator, and Guardian, he was the author of very numerous political and party pamphlets and articles; for, like Addison, Steele was one of the literary champions of the Whig party, He also published a treatise on religion under the title of "The Christian Hero." He died in great poverty in 1729.

Sir William Temple occupied in his own day a conspicuous place in the world of letters, but he owed it more to his social position and political eminence than to any real genius for literature. He filled distinguished public posts, both at home and abroad, under the government of William III.; was a great patron of literary men; and wrote a large number of essays, much admired at the time, but of no permanent value.

Among the minor essayists of this period, one of the most brilliant was Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester. He formed one of the distinguished circle of wits and men of letters of which Pope and Swift formed the centre; and he took part with them in the series of papers published under the name of "Martinus Scriblerus." He bore an active share, too, in the famous Boyle and Bentley controversy, which Swift has immortalised in his 'Battle of the Books." Atterbury was a vehement Jacobite, and being at last impeached for the treasonable practices in which he had been concerned on behalf of the exiled Stuarts, was condemned, and sentenced to banishment. He died in exile.

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on the other hand, was from first- to last the same in character. The daily sheet contained always an essay on some subject literary or social, a satire on some popular vice or folly, a story, a fable, sometimes even a religious meditation. The whole is connected together by the slight framework of a group of ideal characters, whose impressions and opinions are brought before us in successive numbers. The imaginary Spectator himself, who provides us with this fare, is a man who has seen much of the world, who, now living in London, takes his part in all its pleasures and pursuits, but who through all remains a silent observer. He is at home and at ease only in the society of the club, formed by a small circle of intimate friends. Among these friends the most notable is Sir Roger de Coverley, a beautiful picture of an old-fashioned country gentleman. The Spectator himself, with his bashful silence, his close observation of men and things, and his quiet humour, has been thought to be a portrait of Addison himself drawn by his own hand.

The Spectator had many contributors; but it was to Addison's genius that its popularity was mainly due, and it is his genius that gives it its permanent value. He contributed more than one-third of the whole series of papers.

The Spectator was succeeded by the Guardian. But the new periodical never achieved, and indeed never deserved, anything like the success of its predecessor. Addison had little share in, it; at the commencement, none. Within a year it ceased to appear. In 1714 Addison, no longer in literary partnership with Steele, revived the Spectator for about six months, issuing three papers in the week. With the final extinction of the Spectator, Addison's connection with this form of literature closed.

Nothing is more remarkable about Addison's Spectators than their variety of range-the infinite fertility of imagination and thought of which they give evidence. A considerable number of them deal with subjects of pure literary criticism; and so different is the taste of the present day from that of Addison's time, that these critical papers have comparatively little value to a modern reader. But they were of great service in instructing the judgment and forming the taste of those for whose im mediate use they were written. In a series of essays, Addison examined with the eye of a critic and in the spirit of genuine admiration the works of Milton. And there can be little doubt that these essays did more than anything else to restore the great Puritan poet to that deserved eminence from which he had been swept by the tide of popular passion and prejudice at the Restoration, and from which ignorance and oblivion had ever since excluded him.

Those of the essays which treat of grave questions of morality, and other like subjects, have a dignity and simplicity very characteristic of their author. In truth, there has seldom been a great writer whose life and writings are so entirely in harmony, whose works so accurately reflect not only the more deliberate thoughts but the whole spirit and character of the man. And in such papers as those of which we now speak we see in strong relief that purity and elevation of thought and feeling, that singularly calm judgment and conscientious spirit, which distinguished Addison from all other writers of his day; those qualities which secured for him the respect, almost the veneration, even of his bitterest opponents, in an age when controversy was unusually bitter; and enabled him alone, amid all the heat of political controversy, to abstain from anything approaching to personal unfairness towards his antagonists.

A large number of Addison's papers in the Spectator are addressed to topics of the moment, the changes of fashion, and the amusements, habits, and follies of the hour. These have,

for us, lost much of their interest and attraction, for the
fashions and follies of the present day are not the fashions and
follies which Addison saw and laughed at.
But these essays are
absolutely perfect of their kind. No man, perhaps, has ever

Lord Shaftesbury was grandson of the Shaftesbury who, as we have seen, was the great object of Dryden's satire. His Characteristics," which treat mainly of speculative questions upon ethical and metaphysical subjects, enjoyed a high reputa been so consummate a master as Addison of satire in its purely tion during their author's life. They are now, however, little

kindly form, without one drop of the bitterness and contempt the presence of which changes its whole nature and curdles it into poison. No man has ever used so effectively that gentle raillery which can expose and reprove a vice or a folly, and show it in its most ludicrous form, without wounding or irritating

those whom it seeks to instruct.

But the genius of Addison shines at its brightest in those of his writings which are purely imaginative, and in which he

read.

To a very different school belongs Bernard Mandeville, physician by profession. Mandeville was a bold and sceptical thinker, whose theories, moral and social, were attacked by a host of eminent writers, as subversive alike of religion and morality. The most celebrated of his works is the "Fable of the Bees," written to develop his theories of morals and his ideas as to the basis of the social system.

LESSONS IN NAVIGATION.

LESSONS IN NAVIGATION. -I.

DEFINITION OF THE ART-DEAD RECKONING-LOG: PRACTICAL WAY OF KEEPING THE LOG-DEFINITION OF TERMS.

NAVIGATION may be defined as the art by which the mariner is able at all times to ascertain the position of his vessel upon the earth's surface, the course she has pursued and distance traversed in any given time, and the course which she must follow to reach a given point. The wider definition sometimes given, and which, indeed, the name suggests the art of conducting a ship from place to place is misleading, since it would seem to include a thousand arts of practical seamanship lying quite beyond its province.

Assuming the navigator to be provided with charts showing the distance and course between any two given points, it is obvious that his first and greatest necessity is the power of fixing his position at any time upon the "trackless waste" as represented by his chart, for, knowing his position, he has evidently the means of tracing his past and planning his future

course.

The

There are two ways of fixing a vessel's position, one by observations of the heavenly bodies (nautical astronomy), the other by what is called dead reckoning that is, by deduction from a close record of the vessel's movements since her place on the chart was last determined. elements of this record are the observed speed and the course or courses sailed-the former obtained by "heaving the log" at intervals, and the latter by watching the compass. A ship at sea is so much the sport of winds and waves, tides and currents, that this record (which is called the log or journal) is liable to serious error, and the ship's position, as deduced from it every day at noon, needs to be checked as often as possible by the more certain but troublesome and not always feasible method of celestial observation. As cloudy skies and violent storms often forbid observation for days together, the importance of a well-kept log cannot be overrated, and the accurate keeping of the log-board may be called the first or practical division of the science. The daily deductions

from the log may, on the other

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along, is cast overboard. This is called the log, and to it is attached a thin cord called the log-line. In the latter are a series of knots (or pieces of coloured cloth) about fifty-one feet apart, and the number of these which run out during half a minute gives the number of nautical miles (hence called knots) at which the ship is then moving per hour, fifty-one feet being about the 120th part of a nautical mile. The nautical mile is the sixtieth part of a degree of latitude (= 1 minute), or about 6,080 feet; the statute mile is 5,280 feet, or about one-seventh less. The common log here described is far from being a perfect apparatus, though still generally used; various improved forms are manufactured.

The course steered by compass is also noted every hour, or as often as changed. It is now necessary to explain the compass card, of which a diagram is annexed in Fig. 1.

Standing at any spot on the earth's surface (except the poles, which are practically out of the question), and facing the north, an observer has on his right the east, on his left the west, and behind him the south. In order that the direction of any line on the earth's surface may be quickly described, in language universally intelligible, the whole horizon is divided into thirtytwo points, eight of which lie in each of the spaces between north and east, east and south, etc. Half-way between north and east comes north-east, halfway between east and south comes south-east, etc. The principle on which the points are named is apparent from the diagram. The eight most important are N., N.E., E., S.E., S., S.W., W., and N.W. A combination of two of these indicates half-way between the two; thus, S.S.W. (southsouth-west) is two points on west side of south and two south of south-west. Again, one of the eight principal points by another means one point away from the first-named towards the other; thus, N.b.E., one point to eastward of north; S.W.b.W. (southwest by west) means one point to west of south-west. This accounts for the names of the whole thirty-two, but a still greater degree of accuracy may be thus attained:-N.E.b.E.E.. northeast by east one quarter east, equal to 54 points eastward of north. This might with equal truth be called E.N.E.N., or

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hand, be called the second or theoretical part of the science. The remaining branch-the observation of the heavenly bodies to check deductions from the log-involves practical skill and theoretical considerations of an equally high order.

I. To commence with the practical work of keeping the log. The nautical day runs from noon of one day to noon of the next. During that time the ship's movements at every hour, as nearly as can be estimated, are noted on the log-board-i.e., the course or direction followed at each hour, and the speed through the water. The completed record is called the day's work, and from it, at noon, is computed the dead reckoning, or longitude and latitude by account. The particulars of the log-board are then transferred to a properly ruled page in the log-book or journal, together with the computed position, the position as found by observation, the distance made during the day, and the general course steered (i.e., the nett result of the various courses and distances made, if the ship, as is often the case, has not held one straight course throughout); particulars as to weather, wind, currents, variation of the compass, amount of sail set, duties of the crew, etc., and the distance and bearing of the land next expected to be seen.

The speed of the ship is noted every hour. A thin piece of wood, shaped like a quadrant of a circle, and so loaded as to stand upright in the water and offer resistance to being drawn

• This name is also given to an instrument for finding the speed of the ship.

VOL VI.

of a point northwards of E.N.E. The horizon, like other circles, is also divided into 360°, whence each point = 11° 15′; a half point = 5° 37′30′′; a quarter point = 2° 48′ 45′′.

Sailors always describe a ship's course by the "point of the compass" towards which she is steering; but in computing position, etc., the course is described as so many degrees and minutes from the line running north and south through the spot from which she sails: thus, S. 11° 15′ W., equivalent to a course S.b.W., or one point westward of south.

Beneath the compass card, in the north and south line, is fastened a magnetised needle, and the card being free to revolve, and the apparatus hung so as to be little affected by the motion of the ship, the bearing of every part of the horizon is accurately shown, a certain known correction being made for what is called variation of the compass. The magnetic pole to which the needle points does not quite correspond with the actual north pole of the earth, and, indeed, varies slightly from year to year. The variation in England is about 24 points to westward of north. Hence true north is shown by the compass as N.N.E. E., and the true bearing of any object is obtained by adding 24 points to the left of the compass or magnetic bearing. If the ship's head point N.W. by compass, we know that her true course is W.N.W.W. The compass course is, however, noted on the log-board, and correction made afterwards in "working off the log." The compass course is found by simply noting to what point the ship's head is directed, as shown by the compass card on board. Similarly, if we

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A

wish to steer true N.E., we add 24 points to the right to find the compass course to be steered, knowing, as we do, that N.E. on the card is really that distance to the left of the true N.E.: thus we steer, by card, E.N.E.4 E. The variation of the needle in any given part of the world is easily found by nautical astronomy.

But besides the variation of the needle, easily allowed for, there are two grave sources of error in the courses noted on the log-board-viz., leeway and currents. Lee-way is caused by the ship drifting sideways under the pressure of a side wind. Its amount varies greatly with the build of ship, force of wind, etc., and can only be estimated roughly by the angle which the vessel's apparent course-i.e., the direction in which her head points-makes with the real course, as shown by the line of broken water in her "wake." The estimated amount is noted on the log-board. Currents are still more troublesome, and no estimate of them can be thoroughly relied on; an estimate of their force and direction, if any, must, however, be noted on the logboard. Its value depends upon the judgment and experience of the observer. A common mode of estimating currents is to render a

tude, or, which is the same thing, by its distance from the equator, measured along its own meridian. Thus the latitude (north) of B is B Y (or A X or cz), and if we assume BY to be the sixth part of the meridian N BY S, which, as a semicircle, contains 180°, we can immediately define its position as 30° north latitude. Obviously the meridional arc from the equator to either pole is 90°, or the fourth of a circle; consequently latitude

Fig. 2.

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is never expressed in figures higher than 90°.

The longitude of a place is its distance east or west of some special meridian arbitrarily chosen as a standard of reference, there being no meridional great circle with natural claims to pre-eminence, such as the equator has amongst parallels of latitude. The English reckon the longitude of all places as so many degrees east or west of the meridian of Greenwich (the national observatory); the French count from Paris, and so on. The longitude of a place is thus its distance from the meridian of Greenwich (not from Greenwich itself), measured along its own parallel of latitude, or, as some put it, the arc of the equator lying between its own meridian and that of Greenwich. Thus the longitude of B, assuming NZS to be the meridian in which Greenwich is situate, is BC west.

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boat stationary by lowering a heavy weight from it to a great | Assuming B C to be the sixth part of the circle P L (360°), we can depth, and seeing how fast, and in what direction, the ship drifts from the boat. But it not unfrequently happens that this test is fallacious, from the boat having dropped its weight into some under-current, which causes it to move, even if the surface be quite still.

Having during twenty-four hours put upon the log-board the materials he can, in his character of practical observer, the navigator next proceeds, as mathematician, to apply the rules to be developed in the ensuing sections.

II. Definition of terms.

The earth is assumed, for simplicity's sake, and with sufficient accuracy for purposes of navigation, to be a perfect globe or sphere (strictly it is not so, as it slightly bulges out at the equator, and is flattened at the poles).

The axis of the earth is the diameter upon which it revolves, an imaginary line passing through the centre (Ns in Fig. 2). The points on the surface at which this line terminates are called the poles (N, s in the figure).

A great circle of a sphere is any circle of the same radius as the sphere, and consequently having the same centre as the sphere. Every sphere may bear upon it an infinite number of great circles, cutting each other in all directions, but they clearly must all be of the same size-that is, the greatest size which any circle traced upon the sphere can attain. With any other point in the interior of the sphere for a centre, one circle only can be traced upon the surface, which will be smaller than the great circle in proportion as its centre SENSIBLE is distant from the centre of the sphere. Examination of a terrestrial globe will explain this: the equator and meridians of longitude are all great circles, the parallels of latitude are small circles.

HORIZON.

D

now define B's position exactly; it is lat. 30° N., long, 60° W. The longitude of Y, or any other place on the meridian NY s, is also 60° W. Seeing that all meridians gradually approach each other towards the poles, it is evident that a degree of longitude (measured as it is upon a circle of uncertain size) varies in length from nearly seventy statute miles at the equator to nothing at the poles; whereas a degree of latitude, measured always upon a meridian (a great circle), is constant, and is the same as a degree of longitude at the equator. Each degree, of course, contains 60 minutes (nautical miles), and each minute 60 seconds.

The student must guard against the common error of viewing degrees of longitude and latitude as mere measures of length, comparable only with miles and furlongs. They are also measures of angles; thus, "B is in 30° N. lat." means that B subtends with the equator an angle of 30° at the centre of the circle of which its meridian forms part (necessarily also the centre of the globe). Regarding the definition of B's position as 30° lat. N. as simply signifying that it lies 1,800 nautical miles to the north of the equator, the expressions "sine of latitude of B," "cosine 30° lat.," would be unintelligible; but viewing it as the measure of the angle B OY, they offer no difficulty. Similarly, the 60° of longitude between Y and Z are the measure of the angle Yoz. (A knowledge of Trigonometry, as given in this work, as far as the solution of right-angled triangles, is assumed in the student.)

Fig. 3.

The equator (EQ) is a great circle surrounding the earth exactly midway between the poles. Every point on the equator is therefore equidistant from the north and south pole.

A meridian, or meridian of longitude, is half the great circle which passes through any given place and the two poles, or, in other words, is an imaginary line drawn north and south through any place, and prolonged to the poles. Such line is called the meridian of the place or spot in question: NX S, NY S, NZ S are the meridians of A, B, and C respectively, and of all other places situated on the same north and south lines.

A parallel of latitude is a "small circle" drawn through any place, encircling the earth parallel to the equator. The farther the place is from the equator, of course the smaller the circle. PL is the parallel on which A, B, and c are situated.

The latitude of a place is its distance north or south from the equator, and is measured by the length of that portion of any meridian included between the equator and its parallel of lati

The difference of latitude between two places, whether on the same meridian or not, is the arc of a meridian intercepted between their respective parallels of latitude. If they are both north or both south of the equator, the difference is found by subtracting the less latitude from the greater; if one has north and the other south latitude, the two must be added to give the difference. Similarly with differ ence of longitude: if both east or both west of Greenwich, subtract the less from the greater; if one east and the other west, add the two amounts together. Thus the difference of longi tude between a place 400 W. and another 130 W. is 90°; between a place 40° W. and another 110° E., the difference is 150°. Between the place 130° W. and that 110° E. we do not. however, describe the difference as 240°. Obviously the greatest possible difference is 180°, half the circumference of the globe. so that where the difference amounts by the rule to over 180°, we take the difference between the amount found and 360°, the whole circumference of the globe. Thus 360°- 240°: 120° difference between the places named. A little consideration will show this to be the proper difference, as the two places are so far from the Greenwich meridian that they begin, so to say, to approach each other on the other side of the world.

The horizon, in popular language, is the line formed by the junction in the distance of the sea and sky. Strictly, the

LESSONS IN LATIN.

horizon of any place is a plane imagined to touch the earth, tangent-fashion, at that place, and to extend infinitely in every direction. This is called the sensible horizon, but it is never sensible except to the eye of a swimmer when level with smooth water. The visible horizon is not a plane at all, but a conical surface, of which the apex is the observer's eye, as at A (Fig. 3), where, owing to the great elevation of the observer, a very large extent of the earth's surface is included in the cone, of which | BAC is a perpendicular section. Here the visible horizon is a circle, BDC, beyond which the earth and the heavens alike dip out of sight. The angle at which the lines AB, AC dip below the sensible horizon is called the dip, and depends upon the elevation of a above the surface. There is a simple practical rule for finding the dip of the horizon for any given height above the surface of the sea, based on Trigonometry. It is The square root of the height expressed in feet is equal to the dip expressed in minutes. The higher the observer is placed, and the greater the dip, the more distant becomes the visible horizon. Here is a rule for the distance:- To the height of the eye in feet add half the height, and extract the square root of the sum; the result will be the distance in statute miles. We have not space to give the simple proof of these rules, which will be found in "Galbraith and Haughton's Trigonometry."

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of idiom, I shall close these lessons, and therewith terminate a treatise, in which I have endeavoured to simplify the Latin grammar and facilitate the acquisition of the Latin language; aiming not so much at completeness as usefulness; for those who have diligently and intelligently accompanied me in this course of instruction, will find no difficulty in carrying forward their studies with the aid of the ordinary manuals. While, however, I do not profess to have exhausted the subject, I have, I believe, omitted nothing of consequence which ought to enter into an elementary treatise designed to assist the untaught, the half-taught, and the self-taught to read the Latin prose classics.

When two nouns come together of which one denotes a class and the other some members of that class, the former in Latin as well as in English is generally put in the genitive case; as

Militum quam plurimi interfecti sunt.
Of the soldiers very many were killed.

In Latin, however, instances occur in which the former noun, the noun representing the class, is in the same case as the noun representing the members of the class; as

Duæ filiæ, altera occisa, altera capta est.

The two daughters, the one was killed, the other taken.

The two daughters, in English, would be of the two daughters. Here is another example :

Mauri, impetratis omnibus rebus, tres Romam profecti. The Moors, all things being obtained, three proceeded to Rome. The Latin, admitting of greater compression of style than the English, sometimes employs, as attributives, nouns or adjectives in cases where the sense in our language requires some explanatory word or words; as

C. Junius ædem Salutis, quam consul voverat, consor locavit, dictator dedicavit.

C. Junius, when censor, erected, and when dictator dedicated a chapel in honour of Salus, which he had vowed when he was corsul.

There are occasions when, in the Latin, the explanatory word is given; as

Cicero cecinit ea ut wates (Corn. Nep.)..
Cicero sang these things as a prophet.

The word on which a genitive depends is sometimes omitted. The omission takes place when the word can be easily supplied from the context. Thus the governing word is left out in a 49-187 ft. second clause or number of a sentence when it can readily be taken from the previous one; as

IDIOM is a word of Greek origin, signifying what is one's own. Hence idiom, as applied to a language, denotes that which is peculiar to that language.

In the study of languages we find that which is common and that which is peculiar. The union and systematic arrangement of what is common to languages gives rise to general grammar. The selection and exhibition of the qualities which are peculiar to any one language form what is called the idiom of that anguage. On general grammar and on idiomatic usages is founded the philosophy of language, which is commonly called philology, whose business it is to discover and set forth the aniversal principles of language considered as the chief instrument of thought, considered also as a picture of the human mind, and a guide in ethnology, or the science which treats of the derivation of nations; and considered, moreover, as an anxiliary in general history.

A full treatise on Latin idiom would require a volume. Already have many idiomatical usages been pointed out and explained. To a great extent the laws of Latin syntax are an, exhibition of Latin idioms. Several of those laws, however, have their counterparts in other tongues. These accordingly belong to general grammar. Other usages are in strictness peculiar to the Roman writers and their imitators. For instance, the ablative absolute is not found in other languages; in Greek the absolute case is the genitive; in English, the absolute case (rarely used) is the objective.

I subjoin a few idiomatic usages with accompanying explanations, more for the sake of directing and encouraging the learner than to impart systematic instruction. With a few remarks on the collocation of words, a very important branch

Quum Atheniensium opes senescere, contra Lacedæmoniorum crescere viderent.

When the resources of the Athenians seemed to waste away, those of the Lacedemonians, on the other hand, seemed to increase.

The genitive Lacedæmoniorum depends on opes, understood from the opes which appears in the former part of the sentence. Observe, by the way, that the English requires the leading verb seemed to be repeated; whereas the Latin viderent governs both senescere and crescere. This is an advantage which ensues from

throwing the verb to the end of the sentence.

The Romans employed adjectives of number, etc., instead of adverbs; as

Ego primus hanc orationem legi, I first read that oration;

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This is the first oration which I read.

The pronouns in Latin present many instances of idiom, of which the more simple will be found already explained under the proper heads. Some that may involve difficulty to the student may be here noticed.

The adjective, which in sense belongs to the antecedent, is separated from it, and put after and in concord with the relative; for example :

Consiliis pare, que nunc pulcherrima Nautes dat.

LIT. To the counsels yield, which now very excellent Nautes gives.
DIOM.-Obey the very excellent counsels which Nautes now gives,

Here, in construction, the adjective pulcherrima agrees with the relative quæ, whereas in sense it is to be taken as if in concord with the antecedent consiliis. In rendering such passages, the beginner will do well to alter the arrangement so as to make it correspond with the sense before he begins to construe, thus:

:

Consiliis pulcherrimis pare, quse nunc Nautes dat.

The Romans, fond of the relative, frequently use it when, in English, we employ a demonstrative pronoun; and being also inclined to put together, for the sake of broad contrast, i two related words, they in questions place a relative and an interrogative side by side; as

Quo quid potest esse turpius? What can be more base than that?

When the relative refers to a fact or a clause of a sentence, it frequently takes before it the demonstrative pronoun, and thus arises the form id quod; as

Num me fefellit res tanta, et, id quod magis est admirandum, dies? You do not think, do you? that so important a fact, and what would be more wonderful, the day escaped my notice?

In sentences constructed in English with two independent verbs, the Latins prefer employing one verb and the passive participle; for example :

Dionysius Syracusis expulsus Corinthum se contulit,
Dionysius was expelled from Syracuse and went to Corinth;

or thus,

When Dionysius was expelled from Syracuse he went to Corinth. The participles in Latin have sometimes a causal form, which can be fully given in English only by the aid of a conjunction; as in this example :

Nihil affirmo dubitans et mihi ipse diffidens.

I assert nothing, because I doubt and because I distrust myself.

The passive participle in us is sometimes used with a noun in such a way as to require to be put into English by a noun: the compound phrase demands two nouns in a state of regimen: thus, occisus Cæsar (literally, Cæsar being slain), must be rendered, the slaying of Cæsar; as

Occisus dictator Cæsar aliis pessimum, aliis pulcherrimum facinus videbatur,

The slaying of Cesar, the dictator, appeared to some a very shameful,

The pronoun is, ea, id, is used in the sense of our phrases to others a very noble deed. and that, and that too; for example:

Unam rem explicabo, eamque maximam.
One thing I will explain, and that not the least.

The pronoun is, or hic, is often not found in Latin in forms of speech where the English usage would lead you to expect it;

as

Xerxes proposuit præmium qui invenisset novam voluptatem.
Xerxes offered a reward to him who should discover a new pleasure.

Ei (to him) would be looked for before qui; its absence is idiomatic.

When the demonstrative is employed, it may stand, not, as in English, before, but after the relative; as

Tarquinius non novam potestatem nactus, sed quam habebat, cá, usus est injuste.

Tarquin obtained not new power, but he used the power he had unjustly. Important idiomatic usages are connected with the Latin participle. That of the ablative absolute has been sufficiently spoken of. Another idiom or two may here be noticed.

The Latin has no participle perfect active, corresponding to our having read; the meaning may be given by a verb and a conjunction, as, for example, Quum epistolam legisset, abiit Cicero (Cicero, having read the letter, departed). The past participle of deponent verbs has an active signification; as

Cæsar milites hortatus castra movit.

Cæsar, having exhorted his soldiers, moved his camp.

Hence arise the phrases, post Christum natum; literally, after Christ born; that is, since the birth of Christ; ab urbe conditâ, from the foundation of the city (of Rome).

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BY J. E. THOROLD ROGERS, Μ.Α.
INTEREST AND PROFITS.

I HAVE stated in a previous lesson that the rudest and most rudimentary human society is possessed of some wealth. A man, however savage his condition may be, must have the means by which he can get his livelihood-the instruments, say, of the chase; he must have also some stock of food by him, by which he can maintain himself during the time in which he is engaged in getting more food; and, thirdly, he must be able to get so much by his implements, and by the food which supports him, as to be able to support those who depend on him for their subsistence, and who will hereafter perpetuate the vigour which he now possesses for his own needs, and on behalf of those for whom he labours. In other words, he must possess both of these forms of capital on which economists have written and said so much; and he must invest a portion of his earnings in the form by which labour can be permanently supplied. Now the weapons of a savage, the dried meat which he carries with him when he hunts, and the food which he has spared

The passive participle in dus agrees with the noun or pro- from his own sustenance in order to support his children, differ

noun with which connected; for example

Legendi sunt libri, books are to be read.
Causa legendi libri, for the sake of reading a book.

Ad legendum librum, to read a book.

In legendo libro, in reading a book.

Ad legendos libros, to read books.

In legendis libris, in reading books.

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The force of the participle in rus cannot be given in English without a circumlocution; for example:

Tiberius trajecturus Rhenum commeatum præmisit.

Tiberius, when on the point of passing the Rhine, sent before him all his supplies.

The participle perfect passive is used after habeo, teneo, possideo, etc., to give the idea of an act so past as to have

become a settled condition: as

1!!11 exploratum habeto, nihil fieri posse sine causa.

Art this a settled point, that nothing can take place without a cause.

only in quantity and in quality from those accumulations of wealth which are, in any civilised community, devoted to what is called productive labour.

And here I may observe, that when economists talk about productive labour or expenditure, they mean that kind of labour or art which, either directly or indirectly, tends towards enlarging the material wealth of society. A man who increases by his labour the stock of food on which mankind can subsist, adds, obviously and directly, to the resources by which society is sustained. Another, who devotes his industry to the manufacture of articles necessary for the convenience and comfort of his fellow-men, is similarly adding to their material welldoing. A third, who busies himself in constructing those machines by which human labour is economised or lightened, is adding also to the wealth of man. Nor are those less actively engaged in production who are educating human intelligence, prolonging human life, or adding to that security which is a condition necessarily antecedent to any accumulation of wealth whatsoever. Unless men are subserving some vicious propensity, or some indulgence which neither directly or indirectly aids in sustaining, increasing, or prolonging the industrial energies of mankind, it is not easy to assert that their labour is intrinsically unproductive, or barren of all material results. Even those who merely minister to amusement, may play an important part in the economy of human industry, for recreation may so refresh the person who can take it, as to send him back to his work with redoubled energy and largely increased

effectiveness.

Here, too, I may observe by the way, that even if part of the

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