has a separate small order to each floor, or horizontal division of a façade above the ground floor, much of it is astylar, that is, without columns; the windows and arches being the chief features of the composition, and either a full entablature or a bold, rich, and carefully proportioned cornicione crowning the entire mass. This large and simple mode of treatment was greatly affected by the Florentine and Roman architects of the period of the revival.

The example and influence of the revived Italian architecture was soon felt throughout Europe [RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE], and the Italian architects were everywhere looked up to and followed as the great masters of the profession, until the archæological researches of the last century, and particularly the examination of the architectural remains of ancient Greece, led to the desire for a closer imitation of classic, and especially of Greek forms: a fashion which has in its turn given way before the Gothic re-action.

In our own country the Italian style was first introduced, with any pretence to closeness of imitation, by Inigo Jones, and the Banqueting House, Whitehall, may be referred to as a favourable example both of the genius of the architect, and of the imitative Italian of the beginning of the 17th century. One of the latest English examples, prior to the eruption of the Greek furor, is Chambers's Somerset House; the court of the Strand portion of which is a good example of a late modified Italian style, where an order is placed on a decorated basement. In our own day the Italian style has been re-introduced with great though not unquestioned success. Sir Charles Barry, the first we believe to adopt it, has applied it with great ability in several of his more important domestic buildings. The Travellers' and the Reform club-houses in Pall Mall, both by him, will, with the adjoining Carlton Club (by Mr. Sidney Smirke), afford the reader a good idea of Italian architecture. All the three are copies, or adaptations, of celebrated Italian buildings: The astylar Travellers is an imitation of the Palazzo Pandolfini, at Florence; the Reform, a free adaptation of the Palazzo Farnese, at Rome; the microstylar Carlton, a direct copy from Sansovino's famous Library of St. Mark, Venice. Several of the other London club-houses are Italian in style, and more or less direct copies of existing Italian buildings.

ITCH, or as it is termed by nosologists, Scabies or Psora, is a disease of the skin, of which the most prominent symptom is a constant and intolerable itching. The eruption consists most commonly of minute vesicles filled with a clear watery fluid, and slightly elevated on small pimples; but its character is often obscured by a mixture of papulæ and pustules with the vesicles. Hence the disease has been divided into distinct species according to the predominance of each kind of eruption; but the distinction is artificial, and of no practical utility. The eruption occurs principally on the hands and wrists, and in those parts most exposed to friction, as the spaces between the fingers and the flexures of the joints. After a time it extends from these parts to the arms, legs, and trunk; but very rarely, if ever, appears on the face.

The itch is attended by no constitutional disorder, except in those severest forms in which the eruption consists chiefly of large pustules, surrounded by considerable inflammation of the adjacent skin. It never appears to arise spontaneously; but, where cleanliness is not strictly observed, it is easily communicated by contact. It is entirely due to the presence of a minute acarus under the skin known by the name of Sarcoptes scabiei. With the destruction of the insect the disease disappears. [ACARIDE, in NAT. HIST. DIV.]

A certain specific for the cure of the itch, which never gets well without treatment, is the local application of sulphur; all the parts on which the eruption is visible should be plentifully smeared with the unguentum sulphuris every night, or every night and morning, till the cure is perfected, which will require from three days to a fortnight, according to the severity and extent of the disease. The ointment must remain on the parts after each application, and occasional warm baths ought to be used during the treatment.

Egypt for sale to English buyers. The teeth and tusks of the elephant, hippopotamus, wild boar, and narwhal, all form ivory of various kinds; though the the tusk of the elephant is that which usually goes by the name. The fossil mammoth, often found in Siberia, was a kind of elephant; and the ivory of the tusks is very similar to that of the elephant of the present day. The Russians almost wholly make use of this kind of ivory. Some of the mammoth tusks are 10 feet long, solid to within 6 inches of the end, and weigh 168 lbs. Pianoforte makers occasionally veneer the white keys of those instruments with mammoth ivory.

For purposes of manufacture ivory is cut up by means of saws set in steel frames; the saws are from 15 to 30 inches long, from 14 to 3 inches wide, and 1-50th of an inch thick; with the teeth sharp but coarse. From the peculiar curves and twists of each tusk, great art is required to cut up the ivory with least waste. Veneers are cut in a ratio of 30 to an inch thickness of ivory; and as the sawdust, together with the scraping from after processes, effect a waste of one-half, it often happens that 60 finished ivory veneers will be no more than an inch in aggregate thickness. The thin plates are used chiefly for miniatures and for memorandum-books. The Russians, some years ago, devised a mode of cutting wood veneers out of solid blocks, by slicing it spirally from the surface towards the centre, like unfolding a roll of cloth; and M. Pape, a pianoforte manufacturer at Paris, afterwards applied this method to the cutting of ivory veneers. He can produce sheets measuring 150 inches by 30; and with such sheets he has veneered the entire surface of pianofortes. Ivory forms a fine and delicate material for gra duated scales in mathematical instruments; but it is liable to expand and contract, under alternations of weather, to an inconvenient degree-insomuch that the Tithe Commissioners have refused to permit the use of ivory scales in laying down the areas and boundaries of land.

Ivory, after being cut with the saw, is smoothed and polished by various means-such as very fine glass paper, or emery paper; whiting and water applied by wash leather; oil on a bit of rag; putty powder; Flanders brick, Trent sand, or powdered chalk, wetted, and applied with flannel or a brush; or scraping and then rubbing on soft wheels. The list wheels employed by ivory-workers consist of 10 to 20 circular pieces of woollen cloth, screwed tightly between two wooden discs of rather smaller diameter; the cloth forms a pliant edge projecting beyond the wood; such wheels when moistened with Trent sand, are used for polishing parasol handles and similar articles. The chief demand in England for ivory is for making knife-handles and combs. Ivory is often engraved by the French artists. They first cover the surface with a ground of wax or composition; then etch the design in this ground; then bite it in by a dilute solution of nitrate of silver; then wash in distilled water, dry with blotting-paper, and expose for one hour to the sun's rays. When the ground has been removed by the action of essence of turpentine, the design presents itself as a series of brownish lines, which soon become nearly black. The design may be developed in other tints if, instead of nitrate of silver, there be used nitromuriate of gold or platinum, or nitrate of copper. Sometimes the ivory itself is engraved, and the lines filled in with hard black varnish. Another mode of ornamenting ivory is to engrave a design on a copper plate, take an impression on paper, transfer this impression to the ivory, stop out the blank portions with guiacum varnish, submit the ivory to the action of dilute acid, and then melt or wash off the varnish; there will result a tinted engraving on the surface of the ivory.

Mr. Cheverton in 1850 patented a mode of making what he terms artificial ivory. It consists in giving an ivory-like surface to gypsum or alabaster. The ornaments or other articles made of this material are exposed for forty-eight hours to a temperature of 300° Fahr., by which the moisture is driven off. They are then immersed till saturated in olive oil or in white hard varnish; and after being steeped several times in warm water, they are polished with whiting or putty powder, by which they obtain an ivory-like surface. M. Franchi has devised a somewhat similar mode of imitating ivory by preparing a mixture of 32 parts plaster of Paris with 1 of Italian yellow ochre; the materials are reduced to powder, sifted, mixed, liquefied with water, cast in moulds, dried in the open air, baked in an oven, and soaked while hot for a quarter of an hour in a hot mixture of equal parts of spermaceti, white wax, and stearine; the cast is finally brushed while warm, and polished with a tuft of cotton wool when cold.

IXOLITE. A mineral hydrocarbon resembling hartite.

before

in the English language, has a sibilant sound, closely connected a similar sound in the French tongue; but in German it is pronounced altogether as our y before a vowel. What its pronunciation was in Latin may admit of dispute, for although it is generally laid down that its power with the Romans was the same as with the Germans, there is reason for thinking that our own sound of the letter was not unknown to the ancient inhabitants of Italy. The name of Jupiter was undoubtedly written originally Diupiter, so Janus was at first Dianus, just as the goddess Diana was called by the rustics Jana. (See D and 1.) The argument might be strengthened by comparing the Latin jungo with the Greek Sevyvvu, Jupiter with Zev TатEр, &c., and also by referring to the modern Italian forms, Giogo, giovare, giovenco, giovane, &c. There is no absurdity in supposing that two pronunciations may have co-existed in the same country. As to the form of the letter j, it was originally identical with that of i, and the distinction between them is of recent date. Exactly in the same way, among the numerals used in medical prescriptions, it is the practice to write the last symbol for unity with a longer stroke, vj vij, viij.

In the Spanish language j represents a guttural, and is now used instead of x, which had the same power: thus Jeres rather than Xeres is the name of the town which gives its title to the wine called by us sherry. For the changes to which j is liable, see D, G, and I. JACOBINS, is the name of a faction which exercised a great influence on the events of the first French Revolution. This faction originated in a political club formed at Versailles, about the time of the meeting of the first National Assembly, and which was composed chiefly of deputies from Brittany, who were most determined against the court and the old monarchy, and some also from the South of France, among whom was Mirabeau. When the National Assembly removed its sittings to Paris (October 19, 1789), the Breton club followed it, and soon after established its meetings in the lately suppressed convent of the Jacobins, or Dominican monks, in the Rue St. Honoré. From this circumstance the club and the powerful party which grew from it acquired the name of Jacobins. During the year 1790 the club increased its numbers by admitting many men known for violent pinciples, which tended not to the establishment of a constitutional throne, but to the subversion of the monarchy. A schism broke out between these and the original Jacobins, upon which Danton, Marat, and other revolutionists seceded from the club, and formed themselves into a separate club called "Les Cordeliers," from their meetings being held in a suppressed convent of Franciscan friars. [DANTON, in BIOG. DIV.] The Cordeliers openly advocated massacre, proscription, and confiscation, as a means of establishing the sovereignty of the people. In 1791 the Cordeliers reunited themselves with the Jacobin club, from which they expelled the less fanatical members, such as Louis Stanislas Freron, Legendre, and others. From that time, and especially in the following year 1792, the Jacobin club assumed the ascendancy over the legislature; the measures previously discussed and carried in the club being forced upon the assembly by the votes of the numerous Jacobin members, and by the out-door influence of the pikemen of the suburbs, with whom the club was in close connection. The attack on the Tuileries, in August, 1792, the massacres of the following September, the suppression of royalty, and most of the measures of the reign of terror, originated with the club of the Jacobins. [ROBESPIERRE, in BIOG. DIV. The club had affiliations all over France. After the fall of Robespierre in July, 1794, the convention passed a resolution forbidding all popular assemblies from interfering with the deliberations of the legislature. The Jacobins, however, having attempted an insurrection in November, 1794, in order to save one of their members, Carrier, who had been condemned to death, for his atrocities at Nantes, the convention ordered the club to be shut up; and Legendre, one of its former members, with an armed force dissolved the meeting, and closed the hall. The spirit of the club, however, survived in its numerous adherents, and continued to struggle against the legislature and the Executive Directory, until Bonaparte put an end to all factions, and restored order in France. The name of Jacobin has since continued to be used, though often improperly applied, like other party names, to denote men of extreme democratical principles, who wish for the subversion of monarchy and of all social distinctions, and are not over-scrupulous about the means of effecting their object.

JACQUARD APPARATUS. The Jacquard loom-or, more correctly, Jacquard appendage to the loom-is the most beautiful of all contrivances connected with weaving. For a notice of the life of the inventor, see JACQUARD, in BIOG. DIV.

J

each face of the box is fitted a card also perforated: or rather, there are for each particular pattern to be woven a large number of cards, all of equal size, and equal in size to each face of the box. The perforations in the cards, where they occur, are correspondent in position with some of the holes in the box; but in almost every card the holes are fewer in number than those on each face of the box. All the cards are linked together by hinges or joints, in such a manner that, as the box rotates on a horizontal axis, the cards in succession lie flat on its several faces. The cards for one pattern may be several hundreds in number, and all form an endless chain. The box may have four, five, or more faces, according to circumstances. The principle of action may be explained thus:-Supposing each face to have 100 perforations, then there are 100 small bars or needles ranged in a group in exactly the same order as the holes in the faces of the box, the ends of the bars being immediately opposite the holes. Each bar or needle is a lever by which certain warp-threads are governed, in such a way that, when the bars are moved longitudinally, the warp-threads become elevated or depressed. Now if the box have a reciprocating motion, so that one of its faces shall strike against the ends of the bars, the ends of all the bars will pass into the holes in the box, if the face be not covered with a card; but if it be so covered, some of the bars will pass through the holes of the card into the holes in the box, while others, at the unperforated parts of the card, will be driven aside. Thus the bars become unequally acted on, and they in their turn act unequally on the warp-threads, depressing some, raising others, and leaving the remainder stationary; and the cards are so perforated as to lead to the production of a pattern from this inequality of action. The mode in which the cards lie on the box may be seen in the annexed cut, which

Since Mr. Porter wrote, the extensions in the use of the Jacquard apparatus have been numerous and important; and many changes in the mode of working have been gradually introduced. Messrs Lamb of Kidderminster, in applying it to carpet weaving, have devised modes of ensuring a greater certainty of action, and a diminished liability to disarrangement. Mr. Mackenzie, a Spitalfields manufacturer, has substituted a number of compound needles for the revolving bars. Mr. Martin has devised a combination of perforated pattern papers, vertical needles, and presser bars, for selecting and acting upon a series of horizontal rods, by means of which the warp threads of the pattern are determined on. The old method involved a great wear and tear of cardboard, which induced some of the carpet manufacturers to substitute sheet iron. It has however since been found practicable to use a continuous strip of paper instead of a series of cards linked together. The strips can be rapidly cut from a previously perforated sheet of paper; and any number of duplicates may be produced. It required a long time to prepare the cards for a new pattern, and this lessened the willingness to introduce novel designs, on account of the expense; but by lessening the cost and weight, through the introduction of paper great scope is given for the display of artistic variety. Messrs. Crossley, the eminent carpet manufacturers of Halifax, employ the Jacquard apparatus very largely in weaving the richer designs of carpet; it is also much used by the manufacturers of waistcoat fabrics at Huddersfield.

Some progress has been made towards the application of electricity, as a moving power, to the Jacquard apparatus. If the attempts prove successful, they will be noticed in WEAVING.

JAGANATH. [JUGGERNAUTH.]

JAINAS, a religious sect of the Hindus. The name is derived from the Sanskrit jina, "victorious," which is the generic name of the deified saints of this sect.

The Jainas are very numerous in the southern and western provinces of Hindustan; they are principally engaged in commerce, and from their wealth and influence form a very important division of the population of the country. The history and opinions of this sect are also interesting from their striking similarity to the chief peculiarities of the religion of Buddha. The earliest information concerning this sect was given in the 9th vol. of the Asiatic Researches,' in an 'Account of the Jains, collected from a priest of this sect, at Mudgeri, translated for Major Mackenzie;' in 'Particulars of the Jains,' by Dr. Buchanan: and in Observations of the sect of Jains,' by Colebrooke. Several particulars concerning them are also given in Buchanan's 'Journey from Madras through Mysore,' &c.; Wilks's 'Historical Sketch of the South of India;' in the work of the Abbé du Bois; and in Ward's 'View of the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindus.' Inforination still more important is given in the 1st volume of the 'Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society,' by Colebrooke, ' On the Philosophy of the Hindus;' by Major Delamain, On the Srâwaks, or Jains;' by Colebrooke, Dr. Hamilton, and Col. Franklin, On Inscriptions in Jain Temples in Behar;' by Dr. Hamilton,' On the Srâwaks, or Jains;' and also in the 2nd volume of the Transactions, by Major Todd, 'On the Religious Establishments in Mewar.' But the most complete account of this sect is given by Prof. Wilson, in his 'Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus.' ('As. Res.,' vol xvii.)

A view of the literature of the Jainas is given by Wilson in his 'Descriptive Catalogue of the MSS., &c.. of Col. Mackenzie,' vol. ii., pp. 144-162. The Jainas have their own Purânas and other religious works, which are principally devoted to the history of the Tôrthankaras, or deified teachers of the sect. The chief Purânas are supposed to have been written by Jina Sena Acharya, who was probably the spiritual preceptor of Amoghaversha, king of Kânchi, at the end of the 9th century of the Christian era. They have also their own works on astronomy, astrology, medicine, the mathematical sciences, and the form and disposition of the universe, of which a list is given in Wilson's 'Descriptive Catalogue.' "But the list there given is very far from including the whole of Jain literature, or even a considerable proportion. The books there alluded to are in fact confined to Southern India, and are written in Sanskrit or the dialects of the peninsula; but every province of Hindustan can produce Jain compositions, either in Sanskrit or its vernacular idiom; whilst many of the books, and especially those that may be regarded as their Scriptural authorities, are written in the Prakrit or Magadhi, a dialect which, with the Jains as well as the Buddhas, is considered to be the appropriate vehicle of their sacred literature." (Wilson, 'As. Res.,' vol. xvii., pp. 242-3.) The Jainas are also said to have a number of works entitled Siddhantas and Agamas, which are to them what the Vedas are to the Brahmanical Hindus.

The Jainas are considered by the Brahmans to form no part of the Hindu Church. The principal points of difference between them and the Brahmanical Hindus are-1st, a denial of the divine origin of the Vedas; 2ndly, the worship of certain holy mortals who have acquired by self-mortification and penance a power which renders them superior to the gods; and 3rdly, extreme tenderness for animal life. These doctrines and customs are essentially the same as those of the Buddhists. The Jainas do not entirely reject the gods of the Hindu mythology; but they consider them greatly inferior to the Jinas, who are the object of their religious adoration. The statues of all or part of these are in all their temples, sculptured in black or white marble.

They are distinguished from each other in colour and stature: two are represented as red, two as white, two as blue, two as black, and the rest as of a golden hue or yellowish-brown. Of these Jinas the most celebrated are Pârsvanâtha and Mahavira, who alone can be regarded as having any historical existence.

The origin of this sect has been a subject of much dispute. Some have endeavoured to prove that Buddhism and Jinism are more ancient than the Brahmanical religion; but several arguments have already been brought forward in another part of this work which render this hypothesis exceedingly improbable. [BUDDHISM.] It has, on the contrary, been maintained with greater probability, from the absence of all allusion to Jinism in the ancient Brahmanical and Buddhistic works, and from the comparatively late date of all inscriptions and monuments relating to the Jainas which bave yet been discovered, none being earlier than the 9th century, that the sect of the Jainas did not become of any importance till the 8th or 9th century of the Christian era. The striking similarity between the Buddhists and Jainas renders it probable that they had the same origin, and that Jinism is merely another form of Buddhism, accommodated to the prejudices of the Brahmanical Hindus. In the southern provinces of Hindustan, where the Jainas are the most numerous, the distinction of castes is preserved among this sect; but it appears probable, from many circumstances, that originally they had no distinction of caste; and even in the present day, in the upper provinces, the Jainas all profess to be of one caste, namely, the Vaisyas, which is equivalent to their being of no caste at all. The Jainas also allow Brahmans to officiate as the priests of their temples. The period in which we have supposed Jinism to have first risen into importance coresponds with the time in which the Buddhists were finally expelled from Hindustan. (Wilson's 'Sanskrit Dictionary,' 1st edit., preface, pp. xv.-xx.) It therefore appears probable that those Buddhists who were allowed to remain adopted the opinions and practices of Jinism, which may previously have existed as an insignificant division of the Buddhistic faith. In the 11th and 12th centuries the religion of the Jainas appears to have been more widely diffused than at any other period. Many princes in the southern part of the peninsula embraced this faith; but it gradually lost much of its power and influence, in consequence of the rapid progress of the Vaishnavas and Saivas.

"

The Jainas were anciently called Arhatas, and are divided into two sects, of which the former is called Vivasanas, Muktavasanas, Mucktâmbaras, or Digambaras, in reference to the nakedness of this order; and the latter Swetâmbaras, "clad in white," because the teachers of this sect wear white garments. The former are the more ancient. In the early philosophical writings of the Hindus, in which the Jainas are mentioned, they are almost always called Digambaras, or Nagnas, "naked." The term Jaina rarely occurs, and that of Swetâmbara still more rarely. These two sects, though differing from each other in very few points, oppose one another with the bitterest animosity. The Jainas are also divided into Yatis and Srâvakas, clerical and lay, the former of whom subsist upon the alms of the latter. The religious ritual of the Jainas is very simple. The Yatis dispense with acts of devotion at their pleasure; and the Srâvakas are only bound to visit a temple daily, where some of the images of the Jinas are erected, and make a trifling offering of fruit and flowers, accompanied by a short prayer. The Jaina temples are generally superior in size and beauty to those which belong to the Brahmanical religion. [INDIA, ARCHITECTURE OF.] Bishop Heber has given an account of his visit to one of these temples, from which strangers are usually excluded with jealous precautions. "The priest led us," he says, "into a succession of six small rooms, with an altar at the end of each, not unlike those in Roman Catholic chapels, with a little niche on one side, resembling what in such churches they call the piscina. In the centre of each room was a large tray with rice and ghee strongly perfumed, apparently as an offering, and men seated on their heels on the floor, with their hands folded as in prayer or religious contemplation. Over each of the altars was an altar-piece, a large bas-relief in marble, containing, the first five, the last in succession twenty-five figures, all of men sitting cross-legged, one considerably larger than the rest, and represented as a negro. He, the priest said, was their god; the rest were the different bodies he had assumed at different epochs, when he had become incarnate to instruct mankind. The doctrines he had delivered on these occasions make up their theology; and the progress which any one has made in these mysteries entitles him to worship in one or more of the successive apartments which were shown us." (Journal,' i., p. 292.)

The moral code of the Jainas is expressed in five Mahavratas, or great duties:" 1st, refraining from injury to life; 2nd, truth; 3rd, honesty; 4th, chastity; 5th, freedom from worldly desires. There are also four Dhermas, or "merits: " liberality, gentleness, piety, and penance.

JALAP is obtained from several plants of the tribe of the Convol vulacea. The best is procured from the Exogonium purga (Bentham), called also Ipomaa purga. It is a native of Mexico, growing high up in the mountains. Jalap is chiefly shipped from Vera Cruz, and takes its name from the town of Xalapa, or Jalapa, in the interior. It is best when collected in March or April, before the young shoots have begun to be developed. The large root, which often weighs 50 pounds, is divided into portions, which are hung in nets over a fire, and dried in

the sense for which they were condemned

The Jesuits again appealed to the pope, and a curious question arose for the pope, which was, to determine the exact meaning of an author who was dead. Alexander VII. however, by a new bull, in 1656, again condemned Jansenius's book as containing the five propositions in the sense ascribed to them by the former bull. Arnauid and other learned men of Port-Royal persisted in denying this assumed meaning; and thus they, and all those who thought like them, received the appellation of Jansenists. A formulary was now drawn out conformable to the papal bull, which all ecclesiastical persons in France were required to sign, on pain of being suspended from their functions and offices. A great many refused, and this occasioned a schism in the French church, which lasted many years. Arnauld, Pascal, Nicole, and other reputed Jansenists attacked vehemently the corruption, discipline, and morality of the church, and the Jesuits as supporters of that relaxation. [PASCAL, in BIOG. DIV.] They also inculcated the necessity of mental rather than outward or ceremonial devotion; they promoted the knowledge of the Scriptures among the people, and they encouraged general education by numerous good works which came from the press of Port-Royal. Meantime the controversy with Rome continued, although Clement IX., in 1668, entered into a sort of compromise with the French non-subscribing clergy, and Innocent XI. behaved with still greater moderation towards them. But Father Quesnel's 'Moral Observations on the New Testament,' published in 1698, added fuel to the flame. Quesnel, being now considered at the head of the Jansenist party, was driven into exile; Louis XIV., urged by his Jesuit confessor, suppressed the monastery of Port-Royal in 1709; and Pope Clement XI., in 1713, fulminated the bull'Unigenitus' against 101 propositions of Father Quesnel's work. [CLEMENT XI. in BIOG. Div.] A fresh contention now arose; a great part of the French clergy, many of whom were not Jansenists, including Cardinal de Noailles, appealed from the bull of the pope to a general council. The Regent d'Orléans however insisted on unconditional submission to the bull, and the recusants, or "appellants," were persecuted and driven into exile. This persecution made many fanatics, and Jansenism became a name for a set of visionaries and impostors. A certain Abbé Paris, who had been one of the appellants, and had died in 1727, was said to perform miracles from his tomb. For an investigation of these pretended miracles, see Bishop Douglas's Criterion, or Miracles Examined.' Next came a set of men called Convulsionnaires, who were seized with spasms and ecstasies; and others who were styled Flagellants, who whipped themselves in honour of the Saint Abbé Paris. This frenzy lasted for years, and the government by harsh measures only increased it; in fact it became mixed up with political discontent, and the parliament of Paris took the part of the appellants. At last the paroxysm subsided, having had the effect of discrediting the name of Jansenism, which, as a sect, never afterwards revived, though its opinions are still held by many. As the original Jansenists maintained the absolute independence of the civil power on ecclesiastical authority, and as even in ecclesiastical matters they were not favourable to the supremacy of the Roman see, their principles had the effect of inducing many of the French clergy to take the oath to the constitution of 1791; these were called " prêtres insermentés,' and were considered as schismatics by the see of Rome. The Jansenist principles extended to Italy, especially to Tuscany, where bishop Ricci and his partisans also effected a temporary schism.

JANUARY, the first month in our present Calendar, was also the first month in the Roman Calendar. It was not the first month of the year in this country till 1752, when the legislature, by an act passed in the preceding year, altered the mode of reckoning time from the Julian to the Gregorian style. At this time it was directed that the legal year, which then commenced in some parts of this country in March, and in others in January, should universally be deemed to begin on the first of January. January derives its name from Janus. Macrobius expressly says it was dedicated to him because from its situation, it might be considered to be retrospective to the past, and prospective to the opening year. It consists of thirty-one days, though originally of only thirty days. The Anglo-Saxons called January Wolf-monath.

JANUS, one of the most ancient and highest of the Roman deities. In mythological history, Janus is the earliest of the Italian kings, and reigned in Latium, being contemporary with Saturn. He was succeeded by Picus and Faunus, who as well as himself, were worshipped by the Etruscans and Romans. Janus, by some accounts, was the son of the sun, and his attributes appear to connect him with sun-worship. He is the porter of heaven: he opens the year, the first month being named after him; he presides over the seasons, whence he is sometimes represented with four heads (Janus Quadrifrons), and his temples in that capacity were built with four equal sides, but only one entrance. He presides over production. He is the keeper of earth, sea, and sky; the guardian deity of gates, on which account he is commonly represented with two faces, because every door looks two ways; and thus he, the heavenly porter, can watch the east and west at once without turning. (Ovid, Fast.,' i. 140.) He usually carries a key in his left hand and a staff in the other. (Ib., 99.) His temples at Rome were numerous. In war time the gates of the principal one, that of Janus Quirinus, were always open; in peace they were closed to retain the wars within (Ib., 124); but they were shut once only between the

reign of Numa and that of Augustus. In reference to this attribute he has the epithets of Clusius and Patuleius, the shutter and opener. All his attributes, numerous and complicated as they are, appear to have reference to this notion of opening and shutting, and are explained, by those who see in Janus a modification of the sun, in reference to the phenomena of day and night, and the pervading vivifying influence of the solar rays; though, as has been implied, the ancients also connected his name with janua, a door. As to the probable origin of the word Janus, see the articles ARTEMIS, and the letter J.

JAPANNING, is the art of producing a highly varnished surface on wood, metal, or other hard substance, sometimes of one colour only. but more commonly figured and ornamented. The process has received its name from that of the islands of Japan, whence articles so varnished were first brought to Europe; though the manufacture is also exten sively practised by the Chinese, Siamese, Birmese, and other nations of the extreme east of Asia, among whom it was suggested most probably by the possession of a tree, which affords with little preparation a beautiful varnish, exceedingly well adapted for the purpose, and which hardens better than those prepared in Europe.

The appearance of japanned work is as various as the taste and fancy of the artists employed in it. Sometimes it is a plain black or red, with a gilded or painted border; or it is an imitation of marble, of fine grained or rare wood, or of tortoiseshell; sometimes a drawing, in which high finish, brilliant colour, and showy patterns are more sought than good design; and occasionally fine copperplate engravings are applied to a japanned surface. In all cases the work is highly polished and varnished. Japanning is applied to ladies' work-boxes and worktables, toilet-boxes, cabinets, tea-caddies, fire-screens, tea-trays, breadbaskets, snuffers and trays, candlesticks, and a variety of other articles. A good deal of common wood-painting is also called japanning; but this differs from the more ordinary painter's work in little else than in using turpentine instead of oil to mix the colours with. Bedsteads, dressing-tables, wash-hand-stands, bed-room chairs, and similar articles of furniture are painted in this way.

Three processes are usually required in japanning; laying the ground, painting, and finishing. In addition to these processes, whenever the matter to be japanned is not sufficiently smooth to receive the varnish, or when it is too soft or coarse, it is sometimes prepared or primed before any of the proper japanning processes are applied. The preparatory mixture or priming is composed of size and chalk; it is put on with a brush like paint, and when perfectly dry it is brought to an even surface by rubbing with rush, and is then smoothed by a wet rag. The best japanners, however, disapprove of the use of priming, because its brittleness is very detrimental to the firmness of the varnishes laid over it; they use no substances which are of themselves unfit for receiving a varnish, or which they are unable to bring to a sufficiently smooth surface. For wood hard and fine enough to receive a varnish without priming, and for metals, paper, and leather, the only preparation necessary is a coat or two of varnish. In all these processes it is a rule to allow a day or two to intervene after every operation, that the work may be thoroughly dry.

When the work has been prepared, the ground is laid on; this is either all of one colour, or marbled, or done in imitation of tortoiseshell. The grounds are the ordinary pigments mixed with varnish, laid on smoothly with a brush: when thoroughly dry they are varnished, and afterwards polished by rubbing with a rag and tripoli or rotten stone; and, if the ground be white, with putty or starch and oil. The varnish used is either copal, seed lac, or made of the gums animi and mastic. The mode of laying the grounds varies greatly. That which is now generally followed is to lay on one or two thick coats of colour mixed with varnish, then to varnish three or four times, and afterwards to dry the work thoroughly in a stove. The colours are flake-white or white-lead, Prussian-blue, vermilion, Indian-red, king's-yellow, verdigris, and lamp-black; intermediate tints are made by mixtures of these; and an imitation of tortoiseshell is produced by vermilion and a varnish of linseed-oil and umber. When a particularly gorgeous appearance is desired, the ground may be laid entirely in gold. This is produced by going over the work with japanner's gold size, which, when dry enough to bear touching with the finger, but still soft and clammy, is covered with gold-dust, applied on a piece of soft wash-leather. Any other metallic dust may be laid on in the same way. Many receipts are given for preparing the japanner's gold size, but nearly all agree in making linseed-oil and gum animi the basis of the composition. A curious and very striking mode of laying the ground, called the dip, was formerly much practised. It was done by dropping small quantities of coloured varnish in a trough of water, over the surface of which it immediately spread in curious and often beautiful ramifications; into these the article was dipped; the colour was thus transferred to the work, and when dried was varnished and polished in the usual manner.

The work when thoroughly dry will now be ready for painting. Showiness and brilliancy are chiefly sought for in japanning, and bright colours with gold and bronze dust are largely employed. The colours are tempered with oil or varnish, and the metallic powders laid on with gold size. Copper-plate engravings or wood-cuts may also be executed in japan work. In this process the engraving is first printed off upon fine paper which has been previously prepared by a thick coat of isinglass or gum water. When the print is perfectly dry,