Р a P is the tenuis or thin letter of the labial series. For the various meant by this measure is not easily understood; except by the suppo; to letter see (of writings confirmthat they This letter is interchangeable with those which belong to the same and universal measure of length to exist in nature, and to have been organ, that is the lips, and with some others. Thus, actually obtained. At the beginning of the 16th century the Roman 1. P is convertible with a b. The Latin, like the Welsh, was fond of mile, at least the mile of 5000 feet or 1000 paces, was generally used by the thin letters, in consequence of which there are very few words in writers (Mile), and itinerary measures were more often written about that language which begin with b, while those commencing with p than verified. The stadium, or eighth part of this mile, had also been form a numerous class. It will often be found that the p in Latin introduced (into books) from the Greek system, and it was the common words becomes a b in the related languages. Thus apicula, the diminu- opinion, derived from Ptolemy, that the degree of latitude was exactly tive of apis, a bee, is in French abeille ; septem is in German sieben. 500 stadia, or 62} miles. This made the pace, or the 125th part of the The German language often confounds b and p, more particularly when stadium, stand forward as a proper universal measure, being the the former is final. Perhaps, too, even in Latin, the written b was pro- 62500th part of that which all believed the degree of latitude to be. nounced as a p in the prepositions ab, sub, ob, which correspond to the But though this may be a probable origin of the geometrical pace, it is Greek απο, υπο, επι. certain that writers did not adhere uniformly to it, so that the later 2. P with m, somewhat rare. Thus the Greek preposition peta is metrologists have formed different notions of its length. We shall in the Æolic dialect neða. Again, the Greek MonuBoos is essentially give the accounts of several modern writers. the same word with the Latin plumbus. Allied to this change is the Dr. Bernard makes the geometrical pace (which he also calls the insertion of a p between either m and s or m and t, as in the Latin land-surveyor's pace) to be five English feet. Greaves supposes that a sumpsi, sumptus, for sumsi, sumtus, and temptare for tentare. pace of upwards of 69 inches was once in use in England. Ozanam 3. P with v. This change is more particularly to be observed in the makes the geometrical pace to be the same as the Roman pace. Eysen. derivation of French from Latin. Thus, from capillus, hair, cpiscopus, schmidt does not mention the measure at all. Paucton (who has a a bishop, decipere, deceive, &c., aperire, open, opera, work, lepus, hare, theory about the derivation of measures from parts of the human pauper, poor, piper, pepper, Aprilis, April, the French have deduced body) makes it only 4! Roman feet. Romé de L'Isle, who contends their cheveu, evêque, deceroir, &c., ouvrir, cuvre, lièvre, pauvre, poivre, that Paucton has several times confounded the Greek Olympic foot Arril. with the Roman foot, makes it 41 Olympic feet, that is, 4) English 4. P with f. Two or three examples are given under F. To these feet very nearly. An old writer, Samson d'Abbeville, cited by may be added pro, for ; pater, father ; piscis, fish; pauci, few ; lupus, Paucton, lays down the geometrical pace at 5 French feet, and neverwolf. So the Greek roppupa, palvoan, bovis, have the aspirate, theless makes the Roman mile to contain a thousand such paces. The while the Latin, as usual, prefers the tenuis in purpura, pænula, conclusion is, that the geometrical pace was an invention of the old Poenus. writers, a needless addition to the confusion in which their accounts 5. P with pf. The latter form is often preferred by the German, of ancient measures were already enveloped. where our own tongue has the single letter. Thus the English words There is a pace mentioned in ecclesiastical writers called passus pound, pcach, pepper, pea-cock, penny, apple, are written by the Germans ecclesiasticus, or dexter (see Ducange, at the word Dextri), which Dr. pfund, pfirsche, pfeffer, Pfau, pfennig, apfel. Bernard, without stating any authority, makes of the same length as 6. P with c, k, or q. See C. the English yard. 7. P with t, as taws, in Latin paro. The Greek interrogative words PACKFONG. [Geruan SILVER.) beginning with a π, as που, πη, ποτερος, &c., are related on the one hand PACKING-PRESS. The hydraulic press invented by Mr. Bramah, to the Ionic forms kov, kn, kotepos, and on the other to the demon. besides being used to draw piles, trees, &c., from the ground, or to stratives that commonly take a r at the beginning. And in fact the prove the strength of materials, is frequently employed to pack or latter are often used as relatives. compress bales of linen, cotton, and the like goods into small dimen8. P with pt. The latter is common in Greek, as in TUTTW, sions for the convenience of transport. A description of this machine of Touai, &c., which form their other tenses for the most part without has been given under HYDRAULIC Press; and it is intended here So too at the beginning of words. Thus this and toleuos merely to notice the method employed by Mr. Barlow to determine coexist with holis and Tonepos ; and it seems probable that it was an the thickness which the cylinder should have in order that its strength unsuccessful attempt to pronounce the initial pt which led to the may be in equilibrio with the strain to which it is subject from the formation of the Latin words populus, a state, and populari, to devastate pressure of the fluid within it. with war. Within any section of the cylinder made by a plane perpendicular to 9. Ps with sp. This change it will be more convenient to consider the axis, the tendency of the contiguous particles of metal to separate under the letter S. from one another in a direction perpendicular to a diameter passing 10. Pi before a vowel with ch. Thus sapiam, in Latin, becomes through them, in consequence of the expansion produced by the pressache in French. The word roche, too, was probably formed from a sure of the fluid, becomes continually less from the interior to the barbarous Latin word rupia; and Rutupium, in the county of Kent, exterior circumference of the section, and is inversely proportional to appears upon this principle to have changed its named to Rich- the distances of the particles from the axis of the cylinder; and the borough. cohesive power of the particles is, by the laws of elasticity, proportional PACE (Passus), a measure of the Roman system, being in fact their to their separation, while the strain produced by the pressure of the unit of itinerary measure, to which the mille passus, or MILE, was fluid varies, at any part of the section, with the distance of that part referred. The word passus is connected with the root of pandere, to from the axis. It follows that the resistance opposed at such part of a extend, and Paucton curiously enough derives it à passis manibus, from section to the momentum of the pressure is inversely proportional to the length between the extended hands, instead of à passis pedibus. the square of the distance from the axis. There is however reason to believe that the mille passus came into use Therefore representing the radius of the interior surface of th from the practice of measuring distances in new countries from the cylinder, t the whole thickness, and x any variable distance from the number of paces marched by the soldiery, of which a rough reckoning g2 dx was kept, but whether by actually counting the paces, or by the time interior surface towards the exterior, all in inches; then of marching compared with the previously known number of paces in a given time, is not known. It is well known that with disciplined multiplied by 2 r, and also by the force of cohesion on a square inch soldiers either method would give very good practical results . Vitru- of the metal, will express the resistance produced by an annulus which vius describes a machine to be fastened to the wheel of a chariot (an is one inch deep in a direction parallel to the axis. That integral, for invention revived in our own day), by which its number of revolutions was registered; but this was probably a late invention. the whole thickness t, is therefore f (in pounds) denoting the The pace was not, as persons in general suppose, the step or the 21 rtf distance from heel to heel when the feet are at their utmost ordinary force of cohesion, the whole resistance. expresses r+t extension; this, which the French metrologists call pas simple, was the gradus or gressus. The passus, or pas double of the same writers, was If f' (in rounds) represent the force on a square inch of the interior two gradus, or the distance from the point which the heel leaves to surface, by which the pressure of the fluid tends to strain the cylindes that on which it is set down. Assuming the Roman foot at 11:62 2arf' will denote the whole strain on the same annulus; therefore, English inches, the pace, which was five feet, must have been 58.1 equating the strength and strain, there is obtained inches or 4:84 English feet. Here we might have stopped, if it had not been necessary to explain f-f something relative to what it pleased the writers of the middle ages to call the geometrical pace, composed of five geometrical feet. What they This value of t expresses the required thickness. ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. VI. 0 ат. rt rtt PAINTING. PÆDO-BAPTISTS. 195 occurrence. PÆDO-BAPTISTS (those who baptise children, from hals and rilievi being first coloured with more or less taste and skill, and then Barti(w), a term used by modern theological writers, not as the desig- outlines and figures in sunk relief (intaglio rilevato) being curved on nation of any particular body of Christians, but for the sake of dis- pillars and walls, and the enclosed space coloured to imitate the natural tinguishing all those, of whatever sect, who practise infant baptism, appearance of the objects. But during the 18th dynasty, or 1400 B.C., from the body who are called Baptists. [BAPTISTS.] and downwards, the most flourishing period of the arts in Egypt, PAGODA. [CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.] painting proper, according to the definition given at the commencePAINTER'S COLIC, called also Devonshire colic, and colic of ment of this article, was commonly practised. Egyptian painting has Poitou, from its former frequency in those parts, is a peculiar and been conveniently divided into three classes : mural painting; paintwell-known variety of colic, to which lead-miners, painters, and others ing on mummy cases; and painting on papyrus ; to which might be who use that metal are subject. The symptoms are, severe pain in added the portraits on wooden panels, of which several have been the belly, with obstinate constipation and occasional vomiting, which found in mummy cases, and which also appear, from passages in Greek is generally followed by partial palsy, and in violent cases by apoplexy. authors, to have been presented as votive offerings in the temples. The palsy mostly affects the upper extremities, so that the arms hang The earlier painting was strictly hierarchic and symbolical ; later it powerless by the sides, the extensor muscles being the most impaired. became somewhat freer, but always it was closely bound by convenEmaciation and paleness of the muscles affected are of very frequent tional rules, and as much a mechanical as an intellectual art. The human form was depicted according to a definite canon, of which there "A first attack, taken under timely management, is for the most is an example in a tablet in the British Museum at least 3000 years part easily made to terminate favourably. In such circumstances it old. In all Egyptian paintings the human figure is drawn with less rarely endures beyond eight days. But it is exceedingly apt to recur, truth and freedom than figures of animals; but in neither is there any especially if the patient return to a trade which exposes him again to attempt at foreshortening. The subjects on the walls of tombs, which the poison of lead. Sometimes the primary stage of colic is wanting, are most like pictures as the term is commonly understood, comprise so that the wasting of the muscles and loss of power are the first chiefly religious or funeral ceremonies, rural occupations, fowling, ban. symptoms." (Christison.). A peculiar livid line along the gums close quets, and household employments. In these, little of what is called to the teeth, is an invariable concomitant characteristic of lead-poison- composition or grouping appears to have been attempted; the colours ing from the habitual exposure to it. are bright, and unbroken by modification of tint, or light and shadow; The principles to be observed in the treatment are, to remove the and the artists were ignorant of perspective, the figures being placed pain and constipation, and to obviate or lessen the remote effects. In one above another, and such objects as a rectangular fish-pond being first attacks it is not very difficult to effect the former object, but drawn as on a ground plan, almost precisely as in the rude pictures of with every succeeding attack these symptoms are found more obsti- the ancient Mexicans. The colours used are the primitives, red, blue, nate. Inflammation is rarely a primary symptom, but may ensue, as and yellow; with green, black, brown, and gray. They have been shown in other kinds of colic. Want of power in some portion of the bowel, by analysis to consist of metallic oxides, as well as of vegetable pig. by which it becomes distended, and excessive contraction of another ments. The vehicle employed with the colours was usually glue, but portion, are the usual conditions. occasionally, though probably only at a comparatively late date, wax By saline purgatives, such as sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of dissolved in naphtha was also used. The picture was sometimes alumina and potass, or phosphate of soda in solution, followed shortly covered with a varnish of glue, in order to preserve the colours from by a large dose of opium, the constipation may be removed in the the dust or from atmospheric action, and occasionally a varnish of resin milder cases. To counteract the occurrence of inflammation, calomel appears to have been employed for the same purpose. and opium are preferable means to bleeding, in a disease where debility From the state in which Belzoni found the great tomb of the kings is one of the usual consequences. The constipation has been known of Thebes, and from an examination of various mural paintings, the to last for a month. In such a case it was customary to give the method of working adopted by Egyptian painters has been ascertained patient three or four pounds of crude mercury, in the hope that by its with tolerable precision. After the wall was made quite smooth it was mechanical properties it would force a passage. Nothing is more covered with an intonaco of fine lime and gypsum, which was suffered reprehensible, as it irritates the contracted part of the bowel, and dis- to dry, and then polished. Upon this the outline of the figures was tends yet further the enfeebled and dilated part. Most cases of con- carefully drawn, of sufficient strength to show through a thin coat of stipation will yield to pills of aloes and sulphuric acid, in the proportion | limewash which was spread over it; and upon this the colours, mixed of one drop of strong sulphuric acid to four grains of powdered aloes. with glue prepared from thick hides, were painted. For the paintings Two of these pills every four or two hours will speedily remove this on mummy cases the wood was usually covered with cloth saturated state. with glue; on this cloth was spread a ground of gesso, this The paralysed arms must be supported by splints. It is however of the pigments, rendered opaque by an admixture of chalk, or simply little use to cure a first attack, if the sufferer be immediately the mixed with glue, were laid. The portraits on tablets of cedar, some subject of a second, which he certainly will be without the greatest times found in mummy cases, are also covered with a coating of Should he be unable to change his employment, he must be gesso, and in these portraits some approach is madle to the modulation very strict in the observance of the following rules : he should never of surface by means of light and shade. The British Museum contains eat without first thoroughly washing the hands and face; and never a great many examples of Egyptian paintings and painted hieroglyphies! take his meals in the workshop. “Yet it is the common practice of the Among the most interesting is a series of twelve fragments of frescoes smelters of lead,” says Dr. Percival, “and others also who live in the (Nos. 169-180), painted as described above, which were brought from neighbourhood of smelting-mills, to broil mutton, beef, and pork steaks à tomb at Thebes, and which contain representations of the royal on the hot pigs of lead, by which the flesh acquires a peculiar agreeable granaries; the taking of fowls, and of fish; foreigners bringing triflavour.” When leaving work, a different suit of clothes should be bute; royal banquets and entertainments, with musicians, dancers, &c. put on, and when baths are attached to the manufactory, a complete In the First Egyptian Room at the British Museum (Case 39), are immersion in these, after work, is advisable. The miners of Alston many of the implements used by Egyptian painters, including recMoor derive great benefit from the saline mineral waters of Cartnell tangular pallets, with grooves for the brushes and reed pens, and wells Holywell, to which they annually resort. Here, besides the chemical in which the colours were kept mised for use; also colour boxes ; constitution of the waters being appropriate, an action on the bowels mullers and slabs for grinding the colours; fragments of colours, and is caused, and it is observed that an open state of the bowels is always a brush made of the fibres of palm-leaves. (The great work of Rosela great protection. On this account many masters keep a supply of lini, “Monumenti dell' Egitto' (Tavoli Mon. Civili), contains numerous castor oil on the premises, to which the workmen have free access. examples of Egyptian paintings : see also Wilkinson's · Ancient EgypFat and oily food is likewise a great safeguard. Sobriety is still more tians,' and 'Egyptian Antiquities,' vol. ii.) effective as a safeguard, for it is observed that among miners, potters, Of Assyrian pictures, no instance has, we believe, been found. That and all persons working among lead, drunkards suffer soonest and most they had “ images of men portrayed on the walls” in gorgeous raiments severely. In all cases where the dust of the lead can be kept down by and with bright colours we know; but these were no doubt the sculpwatering, this should be done, as it proves a very valuable means of tured slabs of which Botta and Layard exhumed so many examples, exemption. Wherever it is practicable, other more innocent articles and which from the traces of colour found on them, as well as from should be supstituted for lead, in the various manufactures where it is secondary evidence, we know to have been originally brilliantly now used." (LEAD.] painted. But įthat the Assyrians painted pictures even of the kind Painting in Greece. --The origin of painting, like that of most of the PAINTING is the art of representing objects by means of colour arts, was involved by the ancient Greeks in their legendary history. on a plane surface. In the present article it is intended, not to enter There can be little doubt that Painting like Sculpture was derived by upon the question of the purpose or the limits of the art, nor to the Greeks from Egypt. In their traditions respecting the inventors discuss its principles or practice, but merely to give a broad sketch of of drawing and colouring they may however have preserved some its history, leaving the details to be filled in by a reference to the memorials of those who assisted in raising the art from its primitive names, in the Biographical Division of this work, of the principal rudeness and narrowness of scope. Homer, though he mentions painters mentioned in the course of the article. garments elaborately embroidered or woven with figures , speaks of As far as our knowledge extends the history of painting commences nothing nearer akin to painting than the colouring of the ships or the with Egypt, where it may be traced back to a very remote antiquity. staining of ivory by a Carian woman. The origin of the art in its Of the two arts, sculpture was probably the elder; and painting may simplest form of the outline of a shadow, is ascribed to Corinth or at first have been chiefly exercised in connection with it: statues and Sicyon; but the story of its supposed inventor, as recorded by Pliny, and upon care. is evidently deserving of little attention. Cleanthes of Corinth is said honoured with the exclusive privilege of painting Alexander the Great. to have made the first outline; Ardices, of the same city, and Tele. Nicomachus probably precedled Apelles; he seems to have rivalleel phanes of Sicyon, to have introduced some lines within the figure; Luca Giordano in quickness of execution. Nicias of Athens, Theon of and Cleophantus to have coloured it with a single colour, and thus Samos, and Melanthius were contemporaries of Alexander. The first produced monochromata. Corinth was the great centre of the ceramic of the three was excellent in light and shade, and painted battles and art, and these frequent references to Corinthian painters point with historical subjects on a large scale. sutficient distinctness to the early connection between the potter's art From the death of Alexander, and as a consequence partly of the and painting. The legend of Cleophantus, or Eucheir and Eugram- political disturbances which followed, the decline of painting was conmus, having accompanied Demaratus from Corinth to Italy (Olymp; tinuous. Painters indeed met with ample encouragement, but they 30, B.C. 657), probably points to the early connection of Greek and worked for private rather than public enjoyment, aud their attention Italian art, or to the taste for the former which existed in Etruria and was directed mainly to a lower class of art, - to that which could be the neighbouring countries, as is sufficiently attested by the innu- produced rapidly for the glorification of kings and rulers or the gratifimerable vases with Greek stories and Greek inscriptions now found in cation of the afluent. Instead of representations of the gods, and of Italy. The grotesqueness and clumsiness of the figures on the earlier the great events of epic verse or Hellenic history, works of the class vases, and their progressive improvement, show how little ground we now call genre, low and domestic subjects (rhypography), and even there is for the notion that the proportions of the human figure in pornography (obscene pictures), were eagerly sought. These last early Greek art were fixed by some type derived from Egypt or else became more general as the art fell lower, and painters sought popuwhere, instead of gradually developing themselves as the culture of larity by novelty of style and familiarity of subject, or gain by making the race advanced their art the creature of luxu and sensuality ; but even Parrhasius The very curious paintings on the walls of the Etruscan tombs was noted for pictures of a libidinous character. Vase-painting should here be mentioned; and Pliny speaks of ancient works gradually died out in this period; but, on the other hand, mosaic existing in his time in a temple at Ardea, as well as at Care and was introduced, and acquired great popularity, and Greek musivarii Lanuvium. were in much request for the preparation of mosaics for Rome. Between the 50th and 80th Olympiad (from 580 to 460 B.c.) painting Landscape-painting was likewise introduced late, and never flourished advanced considerably in Greece. among the Greeks, though the art was cultivated by Greek painters Historical pictures of very early events are recorded, one indeed by for the gratification of their Roman employers. Bularchus, in the reign of Candaules, who died Ol. 16. 1, B.C. 716. Some time before the spoliation of Greece, Greek painters had Cimon of Cleone invented catagrapha, that is, figures seen obliquely migrated to Rome and found employment there. But as the plunder from above or below, and thus applied the rules of perspective. The of the Grecian cities by the Roman generals went on, the passion for peculiarities of drawing of this early period are best learned from the works of art among the Romans seemed to increase; and as the love of study of the ancient vases; the forms and protuberance of the muscles art, or the power of rewarding its professors, declined in Greece, are exaggerated, and the positions strained and whimsical. Grecian artists betook themselves in constantly increasing numbers to Polygnotus of Thasos, who probably settled at Athens about Ol. 79. 2 the Roman capital, so that about the end of the republic Rome was (B.C. 463), was the first painter of great excellence, and the founder spoken of as full of them. Many migrated also to Egypt and Asia, and of what may be called the Athenian school. Aristotle (“Poet.,' vi. elsewhere, until such Grecian painters as were left were to be sought calls him åyållós ñboypápos, “successful in his expression of character;" | anywhere rather than in their native country. and speaks of him as painting men better than they are. The Instead of tracing further the decay of the art, it may be well to characteristic of his style was elevation and largeness of design, with speak briefly of the kinds of painting practised and the materials purity of form and force of expression. Pliny speaks of him as having employed whilst Greek painting was in its maturity. The earliest abandoned the old stiffness, and having given movement to the occupation of the painter in Greece, as in Egypt, seems to have been features. His transparent drapery is also mentioned. Pausanias in colouring sculpture; and from the gaudy daubing of the primitive (x., 25-31) describes his pictures in the Lesche at Delphi-the Capture wooden figures of the gods, down to the refined tinting of the most of Troy, the Departure of the Greeks, and Descent of Ulysses to the exquisite statues of the greatest of the Greek sculptors, this was Shades. In the Pacile at Athens his works stood by the side of the always regarded as a branch of the painter's art. Praxiteles himself, Battle of Marathon by Pananus, the nephew or brother of Phidias, according to the well-known story, when asked which of all his statues and of the Combat between the Athenians and the Amazons by Micon. he preferred, replied, “ That in which Nicias had a hand”-Nicias This latter artist, together with Onatas of Egina and Dionysius of being one of the most eminent painters of his time. What this Colophon, were the most celebrated contemporaries of Polygnotus. circumlitio, as Pliny terms the statue-painting of Nicias, really was, The principles of light and shade were investigated by Apollodorus will be considered under another head. (POLYCHROMY.] Another of of Athens about the 94 01. (B.C. 404). To the school of Athens the branches of the art for which the painters were always famoussucceeded what may be termed that of Ionia, in which illusion seems that, namely, of vase-painting-will also be noticed more conveniently to have been more aimed at. This we may infer from the well-known elsewhere. story of the grapes of Zeuxis and the linen cloth of Parrhasius. The pictures ordinarily painted by the Greeks up to an advanced Zeuxis, with whom begins the second epoch of the more advanced art, stage of the art, appear to have been almost exclusively easel pictures Wils of Heraclea, and flourished about Ol. 94. (B.C. 404). His excel executed in tempera. They were painted chiefly on wooden panels, lence seems to have been equally conspicuous in female beauty (as the which had probably been prepared with a gesso ground; but paintings Helen of Crotona), and the sublimity of Zeus and his attendant gods; were also executed on stone, plaster, parchinent, and, though not till a whilst in technical skill he surpassed all his predecessors. late period, on canvas. Glue or size, white of eggs, and gum were the Parrhasius was of Ephesus, and he is no less celebrated for the vehicles commonly used in mixing and applying the colours. Wax was roundness and relief of his figures than for their exquisite form and also used, boiled with mastich or mixed with a mineral alkali, so as to expression. His contemporary Timanthes overcame him in one of be employed as a water-colour medium. The application of wax by those contests between painters which were not unfrequent in Greece, means of fire, or encaustic painting, was of later introduction ; for and which are said to have been first instituted at Delphi in the time though practised by Pausias, who is said to have learned the method of Panænus. Among the ancient paintings from Pompeii is one of the from Pamphilus, it was not generally adopted till about the time of same subject (the sacrifice of Iphigenia) as that of Timanthes, Alexander. [ENCAUSTIO Painting.] Fresco-painting was also of late mentioned in Pliny, and in which the grief of the father is represented introduction, but in the later stages of the art was, either alone or in in the same way by the concealment of the face. conjunction with encaustic, much employed in paintings on walls and Another school arose at Sicyon, in which the most celebrated names ceilings, and generally in works of a decorative character. Vitruvius -Euphranor of Corinth (0l. 101-110, B.O. 361-340), Pausias of says that the Greeks attained such skill in the preparation of fresco Sicyon (01. 103, B.C. 368), Aristeides of Thebes (01. 102-112, B.C. 372- walls, that, in his time, people were accustomed to cut slabs from 332), and Pamphilus of Amphipolis (Ol. 97-107, B.C. 392-352). The then, which could be packed up and carried to any distance. The first of these, a sculptor as well as a painter, was laborious and con- finer fresco-paintings, according to Vitruvius and Pliny, were, when sistently excellent in all that he undertook. Aristeides was remarkable finished, covered with an encaustic varnish, which heightened and for his expression of passion ; Pausias practised encaustic painting preserved the colours. Oil as a vehicle appears to have been unknown. with great success, having acquired the art from Pamphilus. Pausias The four colours which were the basis of the colouring of the Greeks was noted for his children and lighter subjects, and first decorated down to the time of Apelles were-1, white, Melian earth, or, more roofs and arches with figures. Pamphilus succeeded in establishing a rarely, cerusza, white lead; 2, red, rubrica from Cappadocia, called knowlelge of the rudiments of drawing as part of a liberal education. sinopis; 3, yellow, sil, áxpa, from the Attic silver-mines; 4, blacks Ho was moreover the teacher of Apelles, who united the softness and (probably including blues), atramenta, ménav, from burnt plants or colouring of lonia with the science of the Sicyonian school. His ivory. These were the “colores austeri,” to which were afterwards excellence in female beauty was attested by the Aphrodite Anadyomene added the brighter and more expensive colours, “ floridi,” which were at Cos; his power in sublime subjects and his technical skill, by the usually furnished to the pointer by his employer; but the palette Alexander wielding the Thunder at Ephesus. The liberality of appears always to have been restricted to a comparatively few wellApelles first brought into notice a rival of his fame, Protogenes of chosen and carefully-prepared colours. This restriction to a few Rhodes, or mother of Caunus in Caria. This artist excelled in a colours was one of the things which satisfied Sir Joshua Reynolds--an laborious study of nature, and A pelles declared that his own superi- indisputable authority in a question of colour-of the superiority of ority over Protogenes consisted in his knowing when to leave the Greeks as colourists. Another, was their use of atramentum. They both executed numerous portraits, and Apelles was “What disposes me," he wrote (Note xxxvii. to Du Fresnoy), “ to Were off. 6 6 think higher of their colouring than any remains of ancient painting Hadrian implied a momentary revival of painting, and Action (of whom will warrant, is the account which Pliny gives of the mode of operation Lucian speaks so highly) must probably be reckonod as his conused by Apelles; that over his finished picture he spread a transparent temporary. liquid like ink, of which the effect was to give brilliancy, and at the When Pliny wrote (about A.D. 75), painting was already an expiring same time to lower the too great glare of the colour: 'Quod absoluta art (artis morientis); the most splendid colours, he says were used, but opera atramento illinebat ita tenui, ut id ipsum repercussu claritates nothing worth looking at was produced. Mural painting was chiefly colorum excitaret;—et cum ratione magnâ, ne colorum claritas oculorum practised, the painting being executed in a light rapid manner, and the aciem offenderet.' This passage,” he adds, “ though it may possibly subjects such as would surprise the spectator by some trick of art. perplex the critics, is a true and an artist-like description of the effect Grotesques and fantastic architectural and landscape designs formed of glazing or scumbling, such as was practised by Titian and the rest the decorations of apartments; or gay and brilliantly coloured mythoof the Venetian painters. This custom, or mode of operation, implies logical subjects mingled with grotesque borders and garlands of flowers at least a true taste of that in which the excellence of colouring con- on roofs and walls. The best pictures were those which aimed at the sists, which does not proceed from fine colours, but true colours, - reproduction of the more celebrated works of earlier artists. We have from breaking down these fine colours, which would appear too raw, to the names of many painters of this age of decrepitude, but they are a deep-toned brightness. Perhaps the manner in which Correggio names only; the art was felt to be so fallen that the artists them. practised the art of glazing was still more like that of Apelles, which selves were despised, and painting came at length to be the occupation was only perceptible to those who looked close at the picture,' ad of slaves and men of slavish minds. The last embers of native power manum intuenti demùm appareret;' whereas in Titian, and still more were extinguished amidst the turmoils of civil dissensions, and the in Bassan and others, his imitators, it was apparent on the slightest inroads of foreign barbarians. inspection." For further information on the painting of the ancients, see Müller, Greek painting at its best, there cannot be much doubt, was only a Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst;' Bottiger, ‘Ideen zur Archäolittle, if at all, inferior to the sculpture of the same period. The men logie der Malerei ;' Raoul-Rochette, Recherches sur l'Emploi de la who saw and appreciated the one admired equally the other. The Peinture ;' and 'Peintures Antiques;' Junius, 'de Picturâ Veterum;' paintings, equally with the statues, were praised for their grandeur of and Sillig's Catalogus Artificum;' Thiersch, ' Ueber die Epochen der thought and expression, for their nobleness of design, and accuracy of bildenden Kunst unter den Griechen ;' and Mr. Wornum's article, imitation. Foreshortening and perspective, essential qualities in a pic Pictura,' in Smith's . Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, ' ture, were understood and practised. So also were the laws of light and with the authorities there cited. shade, though that disposition of light and shadow in masses, which Mediæval painting.–From the ashes of this extinct ancient art modern writers call chiaroscuro, was probably unknown. Colour, as we arose a new form, which our zealous modern mediavalists have dishave seen, was studied in its subtlest refinements. Whether, as Sir tinguished with the name of Christian art. But as it was chiefly Joshua Reynolds expressed his assurance, “if what has happened in the Christian inasmuch as it was the art of the priest and the cloister, it case of sculpture, had likewise happened in regard to their paintiugs, might with equal justice have been designated Monastic, or Eccleand we had the good fortune to possess what the ancients themselves siastical Art, if it had been intended to mark its origin or application; esteemed their master-pieces, we should find their figures as correctly while from its being nearly coincident in duration with the period drawn as the 'Laocoon, and probably coloured like Titian," we cannot known as the middle ages, its date is more specifically indicated by the venture to say. We have none of their master-pieces; but the works older phrase, Mediæval Art, and its source, as far as painting is conbrought to light since Reynolds wrote, though at best only such as cerned, by that of Romanesque or Byzantine. As, however, the term were executed in the decline of art for decorating the provincial Christian Art has found pretty general acceptance, it may without residences of affluent foreign patrons, suffice fully to justify his san- inconvenience be employed indifferently with either of the others. guine anticipations. The finest ancient picture yet discovered is that In the first centuries, however, Christianity was too uniformly known as “The Battle of Issus, found at Pompeii in 1831, and now in oppressed to require the blandishments of art; and the Judaic notions the Museo Borbonico at Naples. It displays great skill in design, of a large proportion of its professors would probably have prevented knowledge of foreshortening and perspective, and immense vigour of them from calling in the assistance of painting for the decoration of expression, though the execution is inferior to the conception. This their places of worship, or for recording the events and miracles of their is a mosaic, but was probably a copy in imitation of some celebrated faith, even had they been at liberty to do so. The earliest examples of painting of an earlier date, as the chief extant remains of Græco-Roman art applied to Christian purposes occur in the catacombs of Rome sculpture are known to be copies of famous old statues. Another mosaic (CatacomBS], where, on opening those vast subterraneous vaults in of admirable design is that of the Choragus engraved under Mosaic. the early part of the 17th century, the sides and roofs were seen to be The finest extant painting of Græco-Roman date is that known as the almost covered with paintings and inscriptions; and numerous sarco* Abdobrandini Marriage,' found originally on the Esquiline Mount, and phagi bore similar examples of the sculptor's chisel. The effects of now in the Vatican-a fresco-painting executed with great freedom, and air and damp, and the smoke of numberless torches have combined to excellent both in composition and colour. Equally remarkable in their obliterate the paintings left in situ, but a large proportion of them will way are the paintings of 'Achilles Discovered by Ulysses, found in be found engraved as well as described in the works of Aringhi, Bosio, the House of Castor and Pollux at Pompeii (Zahn, ii., pl. 23); an Bottari, and Bunsen, on Subterranean Rome, in D’Agincourt's 'Hist. Achilles in a Quadriga,' painted in monochrome; and a Dirce attached de l’Art, and Maitland's Church in the Catacombs;' while as many as to the Bull, found in the House of the Grand-Duke at Pompeii in 1833, were removable of the painting themselves, and carefully executed copies and, like the preceding, engraved in Zahn. Many others might be of others, have been collected and placed in the Vatican and in the mentioned which, if regarded as they ought to be, as late and feeble palace of St. John Lateran at Rome. As might well be supposed from imitations, would attest sufficiently the high character of Greek their place, no less than their age, these works are extremely rude and painting when in its more flourishing condition. (See engravings in inartistic; and at times they exhibit a rather incongruous adaptation Müller, ' Denkmaler der Alten Kunst;' D’Agincourt, ‘Hist. de l'Art of heathen symbols and personages ; but on the other hand, some par ses Monumens;' Mazois,'Pompei,' tom. iv.; the ‘Mus. Borbonico;' excellent critics discover in them much grandeur of arrangement, and and Zahn, Die Schönsten Ornamente und merkwürdigsten Gemälde a“ peculiar solemnity and dignity of style." (Kugler, “ Handbook of aus Pompeii, Herculaneum, und Stabiae.') Painting : Italy.') Painting in Rome.— The Romans had no independent school of From the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople, Rome painting. We have spoken of the early connection of Greece with ceased to be even nominally the centre of the arts, though that there Italy and with Magna-Græcia, and the later migrations of Greek were undoubtedly native painters in Rome, as well as in other parts of painters into Rome. It was by these mainly, if not exclusively, that Italy, down to the revival of painting in the 13th century, is certain, the pictures painted in Rome and the provinces were executed, and of from the remains still extant in many cities of Italy; from the illuwhich examples remain in the frescoes and mosaics exhumed at Rome, minations in manuscripts (MINIATURE]; from the Mosaics [MOSAICS); Pompeii, and elsewhere. Pliny, however, speaks of certain Romans from the painted series of popes in the Basilica of St. Paolo, comwho cultivated painting long before Greek pictures were brought to menced in the 5th century by order of St. Leo, and from other Rome. C. Fabius Pictor is said to have derived his name from deco- evidence. For above two centuries Byzantine art differed in no essenrating the temple of Health (A.U.c. 450, R.C. 304). The poet Pacuvius tial respect from that of Rome. It was not till about the reign of (B.C. 219-140) was an artist. The victory of L. Scipio over Antiochus Justinian that Byzantine art arrived at its full development, but (B.C. 190) was recorded by a picture in the Capitol, as that of M. Vale- thenceforward, Byzantium remained, till the great revival of painting rius Messala over Hiero had been by an historical painting in the in Italy in the 13th century, the grand central school which supplied Curia Hostilia (B.C. 264). The first foreign picture publicly exhibited artists, works of art, and the laws by which they were judged, to all at Rome was after the sack of Corinth by Mummius (B.C. 146), an parts of Europe. But art itself was now at almost its lowest ebb. event which brought many of the finest works of art to the conquering The works produced were chiefly for churches or religious purposes. city, however little the victors were qualified to appreciate their real | All traces of the traditions of the ancient schools seem to have been worth. At a later period we hear of Arellius, Amulius, Accius, lost, though some desire to imitate ancient forms was retained. SomePriscus, and Ludius, of whom the last, in the time of Augustus, thing of the oriental love of gold and bright colours appears to have painted landscapes, garden scenes, and buildings on the walls of rooms, been engrafted on the western modes of working. The figures were such as we see in the ruins of Pompeii or the remains of the palace of ill-drawn, rigid in character, ungainly in position, long and ineagre in Nero. Caesar purchased the 'Ajax' and the ‘Medea' of Timomachus their proportions, and devoid of all reality. The colours, though for 80 talents, and at his time a school of some eminence existed at bright, were raw and crude, and commonly painted on a gold backCyzicus. The forced bloom of art which characterises the age of ground. Enormous mosaics or frescoes of the St. Saviour, and figures . of the saints, of the most strictly conventional type, were placed in all was a sculptor, and the first restorer of design from the excessive the churches. Individuality of style was entirely ignored. The same rigidity of the Byzantine forms; he endeavoured to imitate the style characteristics occur in Byzantine paintings, mosaics, and miniatures of a bas-relief upon an ancient sarcophagus at Pisa : he lived at the wherever found. And the same characteristics have distinguished beginning of the 13th century. Giunta Pisano is the earliest Tuscan the school down to the present day: for in Greece and Russia, and painter to whom extant works have been assigned : he is said to have wherever in fact the Greek church exists, religious pictures of pre- learnt painting of some Greeks who were at Pisa about the year 1210. cisely the same type have continued to be manufactured. M. Didron In 1230 he was employed in the church degli Angeli at Assisi : there are (* Manuel d'Iconographie,' p. ix. &c.), on visiting the monastery of a crucifixion and some other figures painted upon a wooden cross, the Mount Athos, now the principal manufactory for pictures for the colours of which are mixed in some medium not affected by water. Greek churches throughout the world, saw painters engaged in the The drawing is careful, but very dry, and the fingers are extremely execution of pictures according to a strict and singularly minute code long-faults, as Lanzi has observed, not of the men, but of the times. of laws, ‘’Epunveía tîs Zwypadırîs' (“Guide for Painting '), a copy of The expression in the heads, however, is good, the draperies are well which he with some difficulty procured, and of which translations arranged and the colouring, though brown, is laid on with a strong have been published in French by, M. Durand, and in German by impasto. Some frescoes by Giunta are in the upper church of San Dr. Schäfer (* Das Handbuch der Malerei vom Berge Athos). To such Francesco at Assisi. mechanical perfection had the painters, whom M. Didron saw at work, Contemporary with Giunta of Pisa, were Guido of Siena and attained-each man taking his own part of the picture—that he Buonaventura Berlinghieri of Lucca. The former was illuminator and actually witnessed the Monk Joasph and five assistants paint in fresco painter: a Madonna in the Malevolti chapel in the church of San entirely from memory, without cartoons, tracings, or any other me- Domenico at Siena, engra in Lastri's 'Etruria Pittrice,' has very chanical aid, a picture of Christ and the Eleven Apostles, all the size of great merit for its period. Siena had many other painters about this life, in the space of an hour! This swiftness and certainty of execution time, and they were even constituted as a civil body in 1250. Ugolino are the result of the training and experience of centuries directed upon of Siena, says Vasari, painted pictures and chapels in every part of unchanged repetitions; but we have here only an exaggeration of Italy; he died at an advanced age in 1339. Buonaventura Berlinghieri mediæval Byzantine art with all its soulless traditional design and of Lucca painted in 1236; there was also a Diodato of Lucca, who was absence of thought, imagination, and individuality. The art of Byzan- living in 1288. tium is best seen in MINIATURES and Mosaics, to which headings we A very superior painter to those already mentioned, and one who refer the reader for further information. added also much to the practical technic of painting, was Margaritone Revival of Painting in Italy.- The Ostrogoth dominion was not of Arezzo, an older painter than Cimabue. At the church of Santa unfavourable to art; at least there is a studied affectation of classical Croce, at Florence, there is a crucifixion by Margaritone, which is knowledge in Cassiodorus, and the mutilators of ancient statues are placed near one by Cimabue; and although Margaritone's is less denounced as criminals. The Lombards could have brought no art finished in execution than Cimabue's, the difference is not so great that with them, and were unlikely to appreciate what they found. The the title of painter should be denied to the former if given to the most remarkable monument of their time is the large MS. of the Bible latter. The portrait or picture of San Francesco di Assisi in the from Mont Amiata, still preserved in the Laurentian Library at church of Sargiano, near Arezzo, dressed in the habit of a monk, with Florence ; but others scarcely less beautiful are not uncommon. all the faults of the time, has a grand expression, and is a very remark[MINIATURE.] The union of the Church with the Frank Empire gave able production; it is marked Margarit' de Aretio pingebat : an the popes greater leisure and means, and Rome became once more a inscription which probably indicates a Greek source of instruction, capital. directly or indirectly. It is probable that the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins in The earliest painter in Florence was apparently Maestro Bartolomeo, 1204 supplied to the Italians some of that technical skill which the who painted in 1236. An Annunciation, which he painted in the wild conflicts of their own parties at home had contributed to obliterate. church de' Servi, has been attributed to Cavallini, the scholar of Giotto. Numerous Greek artists settled in the cities of Italy, and a semi-Byzan: Another predecessor of Cimabue was Andrea Tafi , born in 1213; he tine style is visible in the painting as well as in the architeoture of was the scholar of Apollonius, a Greek, whom he assisted in some Venice, Pisa, and Siena. mosaics in San Giovanni, at Florence. Vasari terms Tafi the first But native painters of remarkable talent arose, first perhaps in the restorer of mosaic in Tuscany : he was also a painter. last named city, who soon cast off the trammels of Byzantine tradition, A painter of somewhat more merit and much more fame than any and painting once more rose to the dignity of a fine art, assuming a of the preceding, was Giovanni Cimabue, born at Florence iu 1240, position such as it could only have previously held when the arts of through the partiality of Vasari, or his neglect of research, commonly ancient Greece were in their most flourishing state. We shall be able called the father of modern painting. He was architect and painter; to trace the history of painting in Italy most conveniently by noticing he greatly improved the proportions of the human figure in design; in succession the principal Italian schools of painting. The term inspired his figures with more life than his predecessors; and excelled school of painting is explained under BOLOGNESE SCHOOL OF PAINTING.) them in grace of execution and in richness of colouring : his works are, Tuscan School of Painting.– This is frequently called the Florentine notwithstanding, strictly of the Byzantine style. Cimabue is said by School, and is divided into several epochs, the first of which is termed some to have learned painting of Giunta Pisano, whom he assisted in the old Florentine; but the school of Florence was not the school of his frescoes at Assisi, in 1253, in his thirteenth year; Vasari says that Tuscany until after the time of Michel Angelo. In the earliest period he learned of some Greeks who were employed to decorate the church of painting in Tuscany the principal painters were of Pisa and Siena, of Santa Maria Novella at Florence. One of his earliest and most and there is characteristically no essential difference between their remarkable pictures is the Colossal Madonna, now in the Academy at works and those of the early painters of Umbria of the same period. Florence, formerly in the church of Santa Trinità; but his greatest Sienese critics have discovered a distinct school in the works of the works are those in the upper church of San Francesco at Assisi. old masters of Siena, but it would be difficult to show any other dis- Cimabue excelled chiefly in male heads, to which he has sometimes tinction than a mere difference of local origin. given a truth and grandeur of expression that have never been much Some artists of Siena and Florence, of the early part of the 13th surpassed. Contemporary with Cimabue, but somewhat younger, was century, are the oldest painters of Tuscany that are known. There Ducio di Buoninsegna of Siena, famous in his time: he painted great were painters in Pisa before this time, in the 11th century, but they works in the cathedral of that place, which are in part still extant: also were Greeks from Constantinople : and there are paintings extant in a remarkable altar-piece for the same church, which is still preserved Tuscany which are said to be of the same period, but they are probably there; it was painted in 1308 and 1311, and when completed was the production of Greek artists. In the church della Trinità at Flo- carried in procession to the cathedral. It was painted on both sides, rence there is a picture of Christ painted upon canvas, and glued upon but is now cut into two. One side, the former front, is a Madonna a wooden cross, which is probably of the 10th century; it was done and infant Christ, surrounded by angels; on the other side, or former before 1003 : and in the church of San Miniato al Monte near Florence back, there is a series of small pictures illustrating the history of the there is a Greek painting of San Miniato Martire, of the 11th century. Passion, all containing many figures, executed with surprising industry, ('Etruria Pittrice.') skill, and judgment, when compared with the majority of the works of The first considerable efforts towards the revival of painting were his contemporaries. made by the Tuscans, and the Tuscan painters throughout have done Gaddo Gaddi of Florence, born in 1239, was also one of the most much towards its improvement and perfection in later periods. The distingushed artists of this period. He was celebrated for his works following masters are among the most celebrated in the history of in mosaic, of which there are still specimens in the cathedrals of painting, both for their works and for the great changes they effected | Florence and of Pisa. He worked also at Rome, but the great mosaics in the prevailing styles of their respective periods: Giotto di Bondone of St. John Lateran and in Santa Maria Maggiore are the work of of Vespignano (b. 1276, d. 1336); Tommaso Guidi, of San Giovanni, Mino da Turrita, an earlier master, and the most celebrated of his called Masaccio (b. 1401 or 1402, d. 1443); Lionardi, of Vinci (b. time. The mosaics of the tribune of San Giovanni at Florence were 1152, d. 1519); Michel Angelo Buonaroti, of Castell Caprese, in the executed by Turrita, who finished them in 1225. diocese of Arezzo (b. 1474, d. 1563); Ludovico Cardi, of Cigoli (b. 1559, That of discovering and cultivating the abilities of Giotto was d. 1613); and Pietro Barrettini, of Cortona (b. 1596, d. 1669). All not one of the least services of Cimabue. [Grotto, in Biog. Div.] these painters, through the striking characteristics their respective Giotto surpassed all his predecessors, and he added as much to the art styles, macle epochs in the history of painting in Tuscany. of his master Cimabue as Cimabue had a lded to that of the Greeks. The oldest Tuscan artists whose names are known are Niccola and in the mature works of Giotto there are no traces of the Byzantine Giunta of Pisa. [Pisano, in Brog. Div.] Niccola Pisano, or of Pisa, style : they made an epoch in painting; and from his time Florence : a |