PAPER HANGINGS,

PAPER MANUFACTURE AND TRADE.

251

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These satin papers sometimes receive an additional beauty, by being machinery, anxiety, risk, and profit of every kind. He buys a ream of passed between two slightly heated rollers, one of which has an self-coloured or ground-coloured paper, weighing 300 lb., and conengraved pattern in imitation of watered and figured silk, &c. : this taining 480 pieces of 12 yards each ; he gives for it 51. 153.

, of which pattern is thus imparted to the paper. Flock papers are those in which 11. 198. 4d. is for excise duty. He prints and sells it wholesale for à portion of the pattern somewhat resembles woollen cloth. We have | 61. 178. 6d., or 31d. per piece; and this price is made up of 14d. for already spoken of these, as originally produced; but in the present paper, 1d. for duty, and ad. for colours, tools, labour, machinery, rent, mocle of manufacture, when the proper ground-colour has been applied, skill, risk, and profit. the device is printed, not with a coloured pigment, but with japan PAPER MANUFACTURE AND TRADE. In early times the gold-size; and on this gold-size is sprinkled the flock, consisting of materials used for writing upon were chiefly such as only required fragments of woollen cloth cut into a sort of down and dyed. The some little mechanical fashioning to fit them for that purpose. fluck adheres to the gold size and can easily be brushed off the other Characters were engraved on flat stones made smooth, or were imparts. Sometimes flocks of two or three colours are employed; these pressed in clay, which was afterwards dried and hardened by sun or are laid on at separate times. The French have acquired much skill fire, as in the case of the Babylonian bricks. Thin boards of wood in the preparation of these flock papers : some of their embossed and covered with wax or some similar composition, and plates of ivory shaded Rocks are very beautiful. Striped papers are sometimes pro- and of metal, have often been used. A more convenient material was duced in a singular manner. The colour (rather more liquid than in afforded by the leaves of some species of trees. The skins and intes. other cases) is contained in a trough having parallel slits in the bottom. tines of animals have also been made fit for writing upon ; but wherever The paper is made to pass quickly under the bottom of the trough, by the Egyptian papyrus was introduced, all these things fell into disuse, means of a revolving cylinder, and thus obtains a deposit of colour in except parchment, which is still preferred for certain purposes. parallel lines, through the slits in the bottom of the trough. By a [PARCHMENT; Papyrus.) modification of this method is produced what is termed a blended Paper Manufacturc.— The art of making paper from fibrous matter ground. A trough, containing many distinct cells, is filled with reduced to a pulp in water appears to have been first discovered by the various tints of any given colour, one tint to each cell. A long narrow Chinese about the year 95 A.D. In the time of Confucius they wrote brush being dipped into all these cells, takes up a portion of each tint, with a style, or bodkin, on the inner bark of the bamboo. The which it applies to a roller; from the roller the pigment is transferred to Chinese paper has been supposed to be made of silk; but this is a misa revolving brush, and from the brush to the paper. Thus is produced take. Silk by itself cannot be reduced to a pulp suitable for making a blended or shaded ground, which afterwards receives any desired paper. Refuse silk is indeed occasionally used with other things; but pattern. Bronze or imitation gold-powder is frequently applied to the greatest part of the Chinese paper is made from the inner bark of papers. A device being printed in japan gold-size, the powder is the bamboo and some other trees. The Chinese also make paper lightly rubbed over the paper, and adheres to the gold-size. The from cotton and linen rags; and a coarse yellow sort for wrappers remainder of the pattern is commonly printed in colours. In some is made from rice-straw. Only the second skin of the bark of the wall-papers, leaf.gold, silver, or copper is applied to a portion of the bamboo is used, which is beaten into a pulp with water. The Chinese pattern: this is a slow and expensive process. Other kinds, again, in can make sheets of a large size : the mould on which the pulp is made order to bear washing or cleaning, are printed with colours mixed with into paper being sometimes ten or twelve feet long, and very wide, oil or varnish instead of size, A modern kind called oak paper pro and managed by means of pulleys. It is formed of fine threads of duced in a remarkable way; the grain is printed from a piece of real bamboo, as ours are of wire. To prevent the ink from running, the oak, and is thus more true to nature than any block engraved by hand; sheets are dipped into a solution of alum, which, as their ink is thicker by shaving off a few fibres, a new pattern of grain can be developed at than ours, is generally sufficient for the purpose, but sometimes fishpleasure. Among various novelties in the manufacture, one relates to glue is mixed with the solution of alum. (Du Halde's China,' vol. i., the printing of the pattern in a direction transverse to the direction of p. 415; Davis's 'Chinese,' chap. xvii.) the paper, and pasting the paper horizontally on the wall; the inten- The Arabians, in the 7th century, appear either to have discovered, tion seems to be, to diversify the effect, by removing a sameness or to have learned from the Chinese, the art of making paper from resulting from the usual plan.

cotton. They seem to have carried the art to Spain, and to have there A matter of a remarkable and somewhat important nature has lately made paper from linen and hemp as well as from cotton. (Journal come under public notice, in connection with the use of arsenic in the of Education,' No. 10.) colouring of paper-hangings. Certain tints of green are produced, So far as concerns our own country, a manufacturer named Tate had more permanent than other kinds available to paper-stainers; and a paper-mill at Hertford early in the 16th century; and another mill these permanent greens contain arsenic. When a committee of the was established in 1588 at Dartford in Kent, by John Spelunan, who House of Lorus was collecting evidence on the “Sale of Poisons” was knighted by queen Elizabeth. Previously to this, and for some bill, in 1857, Dr. A. S. Taylor brought forward this subject. He time afterwards, our principal supplies were from France and Holland. stated that arsenic is more largely used for these greens than in any The making of paper in England had made little progress even so late as other English manufacture; and that workmen, as well as the occu- 1662. Fuller has the following remarks respecting the paper of his time : pants of houses, suffered thereby. Constriction of the throat, nausea, -"Paper participates in some sort of the character of the country which head ache, loss of appetite, &c. result. Instances had come under his makes it; the Venetian being neat, subtle, and court-like; the French, notice, as a physician, tending to prove that rooms, hung with paper light, slight, and slender; and the Dutch, thick, corpulent, and gross, coloured with arsenic greens, are very prejudicial to health. Another sucking up the ink with the sponginess thereof." He complains that physician, Dr. Hinds, detected a minute trace of arsenic in loaves of the making of paper was not sufficiently encouraged," considering the bread which had been placed on the shelves of a newly-papered shop, vast sums of money expended in our land for paper out of Italy, France, the paper being brilliant with arsenic-green. A working paper-banger and Germany, which might be lessened were it made in our nation.” informed Dr. Taylor that he always suffered from inflamed eyes and Thomas Watson, a stationer, by the introduction of foreign improvenose, sickness, and giddiness, on the days when he was engaged upon ments in 1713, gave a great impulse to the manufacture of paper. green papers. The Prussian government, attending to the cautions of Still, notwithstanding the great increase of demand and application of physicians and chemists, forbid the use of arsenic in any colours, capital, it was much retarded by the heavy duty, of which we shall whether disteraper, or oil, for indoor work.

have to speak presently. So late as the middle of the last century, With regard to the patterns of paper-hangings, we may remark, that only very common paper, principally for wrapping, was made in Great the attention which has lately been given to the promotion of the arts | Britain. It was not until 1770 that the celebrated Whatman introduced of design will probably lead to much improvement in the devices for fine-paper making at his mill at Maidstone. paper-hangings, as well as for other ornamental productions. Mr. Owen In the making of paper, any fibrous vegetable substance may be used: Jones and other artists of distinguished ability, have supplied manu- such as the inner bark of trees, the stalks of the nettle, the tendrils of facturers with designs of a very superior character; but the great the vine, the bine of the hop, wheat straw, flax straw, &c. Nothing bulk of English designs are utterly inappropriate, and many, even however has yet been found to answer so well as linen, hempen, or when the paper-hangings are of an expensive kind, in extreme bad cotton rays. The sweepings of the cotton-mills are also much used.

Woollen cloth is not fit for the purpose, because it cannot be beaten Sir Robert Peel made fiscal changes which greatly improved the into a suitable pulp, and also because it gives a hairy texture to the paper-banging manufacture. There used to be an import duty of 18. surface. Linen rags are the best of all for the purpose. The rays, per square yard on foreign paper-hangings; this was nearly prohibitory, however, of our own country do not constitute à fourth part of the and the hoine manufacturers had not the stimulus of foreign com quantity which we use in making paper. Italy and Germany furnish petition; when the duty, however, was reduced to 1fd., elegant French the principal supplies. They are imported in bags of about 4 cwts.; papers came in, and taught a lesson. A further improvement was made each bag being marked in such a manner as to indicate the quality of by lessening the duty on paper itself from 3d. to 1d. per lb., and by the rags which it contains. wholly repealing the extra duty of 1d. per square yard on paper In every paper-mill the first business is to sort the rags and cut hangings. Whatever may be said as to taste in fine art, it is certain them into small pieces. This is done by women, each of whom is that cleanliness and comfort have been promoted by these reforms; provided with a large knife to cut the rags. Threads and seams are seeing that wall-papers can now be sold at so very low a price as to come carefully put by themselves : if ground with the cloth, they would within the reach of nearly all classes. At present, nothing beyond the form specks in the paper. The rags, when cut, are thrown in to five paper-duty of 11d. per lb. (plus 5 per cent.) presses on the trade; yet it or six different compartments of a large chest, according to their has been recently shown that this 14d. is, in many cases, more than as qualities. Only the finest linen rags are used for the best writingmuch as the paper-stainer receives for all his expenses, labour, I paper, but cotton as well as linen rags are now used for printing paper.

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A good workwoman can sort and cut about a hundredweight a day. is next taken down sheet by sheet, and another made, by which new Hempen rags are used for coarse papers, and old cordage and tarred surfaces are brought into contact with each other; and the pile is again ropes for brown wrapping-papers.

pressed strongly. This operation, which is called parting, is done two The rags are now to be washed, which is done either with hot water or three times for the best papers. The paper is now counted into in a fulling-mill, such as is used for scouring cloth, or they are subjected quires, folded, and packed up into reams. The size is made from skins for some hours to the action of steam. Formerly they were half rotted and other animal substances, and is required to prevent the ink from to prepare them for being more easily torn and beaten into a pulp. spreading among the fibres by capillary attraction. Blotting-paper is But by this process the fibre was partially destroyed, and the texture not sized. of the paper materially injured.

We now proceed to notice the machine-method of making paperPrevious to the important discovery that chlorine possesses the without whích, the extension of cheap literature, and the wonderful property of destroying all vegetable colours, paper-makers could only development of the newspaper system, would have been almost imposbleach their rags by subjecting them to various washings in alkaline sible; printing-machines would possess insufficient material to print leys, and by exposing them to the dew and light; and after all their upon, had not paper-making machines kept pace with them. The pains, they only obtained a paper so imperfectly white that they were history of these last-named machines is briefly as follows. Just at the obliged to mask the defect by tinging it with a shade of blue. But close of the last century, M. Robert, a workman in the employ of now, by the proper application of chlorine, either in the form of the M. François Didot, at a paper-mill at Essones, in France, invented a simple gas or in combination with limo (chloride of lime), the colour machine for making continuous paper; Didot set the apparatus to can be perfectly discharged, and the paper rendered, if necessary, of work; and Robert obtained 8000 francs from the government, and a the purest white. Objections have been justly made to the improper patent for fifteen years. This was in 1799. In 1801 Didot came over application of chlorine in bleaching paper. Sometimes it is applied in to England, accompanied by Mr. John Gamble, who had resided some such quantity, or for such a time, as to injure the substance of the time in France. After sundry negociations, and the obtaining of fibre; sometimes the paper, after it is made, is bleached with chlorine two English patents, these patents were sold to Messrs. Fourdrinier. in such a manner that the ink turns brown; and there have been Messrs. Hall's establishment at Dartford, in Kent, was selected as the instances in which the colour has been nearly discharged altogether, place for making the machines, under the special care of Mr. Bryan leaving the sheet almost as it was before it was written or printed Donkin. It was in 1803 that the model of the first self-acting machine upon. It is now, however, generally admitted that chlorine, judi. was set up at Frogmore, in Hertfordshire; and in 1804 that the system ciously applied, is not in the smallest degree injurious to the paper, or came successfully into work at a paper-mill at Two Waters. Since liable, in any length of time, to alter the colour of the ink; although that year, a succession of beautiful additions and improvements have there is unquestionable proof that, unless skilfully managed, bleaching been made ; although it is only just to mention that the main principles leaves the fibres less coherent than they were before.

of the machine have all along remained nearly the same. Messrs. The rags, after being washed, are subjected to the action of a Bryan Donkin & Co. have devoted such special attention to this subrevolving cylinder, the surface of which is furnished with a number ject, that they have throughout been the chief makers of the machines: of sharp teeth or cutters, so placed as to act against other cutters in the first ten years they set up 13 paper-machines; in the next fixed beneath the cylinder. The rags are kept immersed in water, ten, 25; by the year 1851 they had set up 191 ; and the number has and subjected to the action of the cutters for several hours till since steadily increased. So far from these having all been intended they are minutely divided and reduced to a thin pulp. During this for home use, more than half were made for foreign manufacturers : process a quantity of the chloride of lime or of chlorine gas is mixed Germany being the best customer on the continent of Europe. It with the rags, by which the pulp is rendered perfectly white. Until is proper to state that some of the matters connected with the early about a century ago, the rags were always pulped by means of history of the paper-machine, both as to honour and profit, are still in stampers; but cutting-machines, introduced by the Dutch, greatly dispute ; and that so late as 1857, Mr. John Gamble, in a communicaexpedited the process.

tion to the Society of Arts, protested against the way in which his The pulp, or stuf', as it is technically called, is now ready to be made name is generally omitted from among those who deserve credit or into paper, which is done either by hand or by machine. On the fame as introducers of the paper-machine. It is not often that an hand-method, the stuff is put into a large vat, and is kept at a inventor, or the fosterer of an invention, lives to put in such a claim proper temperature either by a stove or by steam-heat; and the fibrous fifty-six years after the occurrences to which the claim relates. matter is held in suspension by a continual motion carried on in the We shall now briefly describe the operation of the paper-machine. vat by means of what is technically called a hog, or by other improved The machine is constructed in such a manner as to imitate, and in some apparatus.

respects to improve, the processes used in making paper by hand; but The paper is made with a mould and deckle. The mould is a shallow its chief advantages are, that paper can be made of any size that can square frame covered with wire.cloth, and a little larger than the sheet practically be required, and with a degree of rapidity which leaves the intended to be made upon it. The wire-cloth is now generally woven other mode of making it at an immeasurable distance. The pulp is in a loom like cloth, and makes no wire-marks on the paper; but the first made to flow from the vat upon a wire frame, or sifter, which old fashioned wire-cloth consists of a number of parallel wires stretched moves rapidly up and down so as to force the fine filaments of the pulp across the frame, very close together, and crossed at right angles by through the wire, whilst it retains any knots or other unsuitable other stronger wires about an inch apart. These thicker wires make matter. Having passed through the sifter, the pulp flows over a ledge the wire-marks of the paper, the stuff being there thinner than on the in a regular and even stream, and is received upon an endless web of rest of the sheet. It was Baskerville who introduced the woven-wire wire-gauze, which presents an uninterrupted surface several feet long. moulds, in 1750; or rather, a beautiful edition of 'Virgil,' printed by The wire-web moves forward with a motion so regulated as, taken in him on paper thus made, was the means of drawing general attention connection with the quantity of pulp allowed to flow upon it, to to this improvement. The deckle is a very thin frame of wood which determine the thickness of the paper. At the same time a shaking fits close upon the mould, and is required to retain the stuff on the motion is given from side to side, to the wire web, which assists in spreadmould and to limit the size of the sheet. The dipper, or vatman, ing the pulp evenly, and also in facilitating the separation of the water, inclining the mould a little towards him, dips it into the vat with the which passes through the wire; by this means the pulp solidifies as it deckle upon it, and lifts it up again horizontally. He shakes it to advances, and is at the same time prevented from flowing over the distribute the stuff equally, and the water drains through the wire. sides by straps which regulate the width of the paper. Before the He lays the mould on the edge of the vat, and takes off the deckle, pulp, now no longer fluid, quits the plane of wire, it is pressed by a which he requires to apply to another mould. After remaining two roller covered with felt. It is next taken up by an endless web of or three seconds to drain, the mould is taken by another workman, the felt, which forms an inclined plane, and gradually moving forward coucher, who, having deposited the layer of pulp upon a felt, or piece absorbs a further portion of the moisture. The pulp is now seized by of woollen cloth, returns the mould to the dipper, who in the mean. a pair of rollers, between which it is pressed; and then it passes upon time has made another sheet, which stands on the vat ready to be another inclined plane of felt, which conducts it to another pair of couched upon another felt spread over the former sheet. Thus the pressing rollers. The pulp is at length paper, and only requires to be two workmen proceed till they have made a pile of sheets, called a made dry and smooth. To effect these objects, the machinery conducts post, consisting of six or eight quires. This post, with its felt, is it over the polished surface of a large cylinder heated by steam. From placed in the vat-press, and subjected to a strong pressure to force out this cylinder it passes to a second, larger and hotter, and then to a the superfluous water, and to give firmness and solidity to the paper. third, which is still hotter than the second. After this it is subjected The pile is then removed from the vat-press, the felts are taken out, to the pressure of a woollen cloth, which confines it on one side whilo and the sheets pressed again by themselves. They are then taken from the cylinder smooths it on the other. It is then conducted by another the press, and hung up, five or six together, in the drying.room. roller to a reel, on which it is wound, perfectly dry and smooth, and

The paper is now made, and only requires finishing. The greater ready to be cut into sheets for use. In two or three minutes the pulp, number of the finishing processes are only required for writing paper : which is introduced upon the wire web at one extremity of the common printing-paper and wrapping-papers being ready for packing machine, is delivered at the other in the state of perfect paper. In up when dried. Writing-paper is dipped, five or six sheets together, printing-paper the size is commonly added to the pulp; but writinginto a tub of size, and afterwards pressed' to force out the superfluity paper is sized after the sheets are cut, as in hand-made paper. It is then hung up again in the drying-room. Printing-paper is sized In most of the paper-making machines a partial vacuum is produced in the stuff. Every sheet is examined, imperfections are removed, and under the endless wire-web by means of large air-pumps. The atmosbad sheets taken out. A large pile of paper is then made, and pressed phere is thus made to press upon the pulp, and the moisture is forced with great force to render the sheets quite flat and smooth. The pile I through the wire. Owing, however, to the change of stroke of the

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267

PAPER MANUFACTURE AND TRADE.

PAPER MANUFACTURE AND TRADE.

258

2

.

.

.

9

Post

22 . 23

24 25

common ones.

• 27

19 20 19 21 22 23 26

pistons, a uniform degree of vacuum cannot be maintained, so that!

FIXE PAPERS. the pulp receives various degrees of pressure, and consequently the

Inches.

Inches. paper is made of unequal thickness. To remedy this defect, by Pot .

15 by 121 | Printing demy

22} by 17% rendering the vacuum as uniform as possible, two patents were Foolscap

17 131 Medium

171 taken out in 1839; one to effect the purpose by substituting a

181., 15Printing medium revolving fan for the air-pump, and the other by using hydraulic Copy

.0 16 Royal . air-pumps working on the principle of gas-holders, instead of the Large post

204,, 161 Printing royal . Medium post

23 18

Super royal

23 Various patents have been taken out for improvements in parts of Sheet-and-third foolscap , 131 | Printing super royal

Sheet-and-ball foolscap the machinery, or for other machinery to be applied in various stages

24, 131 Imperial Double foolscap

27 17 Elephant. of the process. One was taken out by Mr. Dickinson for an apparatus Double pot

30 25 Atlas to separate the knots and lumps from the pulp, by making the pulp pass Double post.

30ļ 19
Columbia

344 23 through the periphery of a revolving cylinder constructed of an endless

30 20 Double clephant spiral wire attached to metal bars. Other improved processes for the Demy.

. 20 „ 154 | Antiquarian same purpose have been invented. A patent was taken out by Messrs. Towgood and Smith, the object of which is to apply the size to the The coarser papers present the following group :paper as it comes in a continuous sheet upon the endless wire-web. The operation in this apparatus is performed by rollers, the surfaces

Inches,

Inches. of which are supplied with size, which is transferred from them to the Kent cap .

21 by 18 Donble small-hand • 29 by 19 newly-made paper as it passes between the rollers. Mr. Dickinson Bag cap

191 Copy loaf, 38 lb.

214, 164 has å patent for uniting two layers of pulp in order to produce Havon cap

Powder loaf, 58 lb.

22 paper of an extra thickness. The combination of two or more sheets Imperial cap

Double loaf, 48 lb. of pulp has been long employed in the making of thick drawing-paper

Singie loaf, 78 lb.

21]

Double 4 lb. and Bristol-board by the process called couching; but Mr. Dickinson's

Lump, 100 lb.

Double 6 lb. contrivance affords the means of doing it in a common paper-making Middle hand

Hambro', 48 lb.

Titles, 120 lb. machine. No attempt, however, can be made here to enumerate in Lumber band

» 194 Prussian lump, 200 lb. detail the steps by which improvements have been introduced in the Royal hand paper-machine; they are too numerous. Foreign inventors have done much in this matter. The names of Robert and Didot have already So numerous, however, are the sizes, thicknesses, and qualities of been mentioned; and we may also notice M. Canson, who was the the various kinds of paper, cardboard, millboard, &c., that some of the first to apply suction-pumps to the machines; and M. Jequier, who | largest wholesale dealers, according to Mr. Herring, keep in stock not devised a mode of making continuous paper with wire marks. Among much less than two thousand different kinds. Placing them under a English paper makers and machinists, the names of Brown, Crompton, few headings, without regard to size, papers are sometimes designated Taylor, Barrett, Ibotson, Wilks, and Hollingworth may be mentioned thus :— Writing paper, five kinds, namely, cream wove, yellow wove, as the introducers of valuable improvements in the continuous paper blue wove, cream laid, and blue laid ; printing paper, two kinds, making. So wonderful is now the operation of the machine, that namely, laid and wove; wrapping paper, four kinds, namely, blue, fine writing-paper can be made, sized with gelatine, dried, and cut purple, brown, and whited-brown in these various kinds of paper it into sheets, at the rate of 60 feet a minute in length, and 70 inches in is believed that England takes the lead of the Continent, except in width.

two particulars : that thin French writing paper is better than English ; Varietics of Paper.-We shall now notice a few matters connected and that the French obtain a purer surface than the English, who with the differences in the kinds of paper, without particular reference often hide a dirty white by blueing it. to the fact of their being hand-made or machine-made.

A few years ago careful experiments were made to determine the It may here be observed, that various wire-marks, or water-marks, relative strengths of different kinds of paper; and the result was given as they are called, were formerly applied to paper to distinguish it. in the last edition of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica.' In the following On the paper used by Caxton and the other early printers these marks table the first column shows the kinds of the paper ; the second, the consisted of an ox-head and star, a collared dog's head, a crown, a weight in grains of a superficial foot; and the third, the weight in shield, a jug, &c. A head with a fool's cap and bells gave name to the pounds upheld without breaking by a strip two inches broad :paper called foolscap; and post paper seems to have derived its name from the mark of a horn, which was formerly carried by the postman,

Bank post, very thin, sized

65 grains. 23 lbs. and blown to announce his arrival. Hand-made paper is now commonly

thinner, unsized marked with the name of the maker, and the date of the year when

Thick writing, machine-made it was made.

Drawing paper, machine-made The cutting of paper into sheets of any desired size is an operation

Newspaper, sized at machine which has been greatly improved within the last few years. The best

Scotch bank-note paper paper is examined when made, to remove knots or specks, and to lay

Strong cartridge paper aside damaged sheets. It is then counted into quires of 24 sheets,

Pink blotting-paper folded, and put up into reams of 20 quires. If the paper is for printing, the continuous web made at the machine is cut into sheets of a certain Among the varieties in paper-making may be mentioned Dickinson's size, without any particular regard to the fineness of the cut; but in double-faced paper, to be used either for lithographic or copper-plate the preparation of writing paper, whether hand-made or machine-made, printing, according as one or the other surface is selected; two webs the cutting is very carefully attended to. Hence there are cutting- of different kinds of pulp are placed one on another, and are pressed so machines of two different classes, one to sever the web into sheets, and as to unite them into a single sheet. Laced paper is now very much one to cut well-squared sheets of writing paper. In the first of these employed. The French have long made it, and applied it to ornakinds the paper is generally coiled round a cylinder into a substantial menting fruit-baskets, lamp-shades, print-borders, &c. About 1830, mass, and this cylinder, while rotating, is brought at intervals against M. Rivière, a Swiss watchmaker established in London, obtained a a cutting edge in such a way as to cut through the paper. In the patent for perforating thin metal plates; Messrs. De la Rue contrived second kind much ingenuity has been shown; and it is certain that a modification of the same apparatus for perforating pasteboard and the remarkable cheapening of writing-paper since the introduction of card; and hence has arisen an extensive branch of ornamental paperthe penny post has been greatly due to the adoption of machines, making, especially for valentines, the production of which is enormous. instead of hand-cutting, for the severance of the paper into sheets. Plain-surface coloured papers are now largely made, for the use of In Black's paper-cutting machine, a sharp knife fixed to a rack is made bookbinders, printers, button-makers, confectioners, &c. The colour is to traverse Interally by the motion of the rack. The paper is laid applied by means of brushes, similar to those employed by paperupon a bed, and is adjusted by a screw spindle. A back-plate is hinged stainers; but the pigments are better, and more care is taken in at its lower edge, so as to be brought by pinching-screws to a proper laying on, smoothing, and finishing. Gilt, silvered, and coloured position for the paper to be cut rectangularly; and there is a screw to papers are prepared for decorative stationery, by chromo-lithography, raise and lower the knife. Morgan's cutting machine is intended to do surface-printing, block-printing, and woven-wire printing. The inge. the work with a small expenditure of power; the cutting-knife rotates nuity of paper-makers has also been directed to the production of on an axis, and the paper advances horizontally to meet it, like the paper covered with real gold and siver; paper coated with bronze or action of a circular saw in timber-cutting. In Ullmer's machine there imitation bronze; paper embossed and grained by means of engraved is a contrivance for imparting to the cutting-knife a diagonal move-rollers, dies, and plates ; paper varnished to imitate Morocco leather ; ment, so as to enable it to make a draw-cut in an effective manner. paper enamelled, for the ground of fine satin paper-hangings, and for There are many other paper-cutting machines, acting on similar prin other ornamental purposes, by treating the surface with sulphate of ciples, but differing in details.

barytes--a pigment reduced in price within a few years from 218. to Mr. Herring, in a recent work on the paper manufacture, while 6d. per lb. ; paper extra-enamelled with Kremnitz white lead, for giving a list of the various sizes and names of paper, puts together the wedding cards, &c.; paper with an opaline iridescence, prepared by writing, drawing, printing, and wrapping papers, and then separates Messrs. De la Rue; paper to which a kind of metallic granular surface thern simply into two groups, according as they are fine or coarse. has been given, for memorandum books; &c. The chief names and sizes mentioned by him are as follow :

Much attention has been paid to the manufacture of paper whicla

.

Scotland
Ireland

694
79
70

333
54
27

were at work

in 1859.

of which

.

may frustrate the designs of forgers. The selection of a device or offered a prize of 10001. to the discoverer or inventor of any new design for bank-notes, cheques, &c., the mode of engraving, the mode kind of paper which, at a certain wholesale price, should possess a

of printing, and the kind of ink, all bear immediately on this subject. certain list of good qualities; but the desired standard has, we beliere, | The principle is this—to apply to the paper such a chemical agent never yet been reached. In the same year, the Treasury drew the

that, if the ink be tampered with, the paper shall become discoloured attention of the Board of Trade to the scarcity in the materials for and the attempt at fraud revealed. Mr. Stone, Mr. Barclay, Mr. paper; and suggested that, in conjunction with the Foreign Office, the Stevenson, Mr. Herapath, and other persons, have directed their Board might possibly be able to obtain from British consuls abroad, attention to this matter; and the chemicals suggested for application useful information concerning vegetable fibre which would be available are prussiate of potash, iodide and ferrocyanide of the same alkali, for this manufacture. It was mentioned that 2d. or 21d. per pound salts of copper, sålts of manganese, starch, &c. One recipe is, for a might perhaps be the price which paper manufacturers would be willing ream of post, 1 oz. of iodide of potash, £ oz. of ferrocyanide of potash, to give for such materials. r. Lyon Playfair, on the part of the and 1 lb. of starch. Any attempt to remove writing by chemical Board of Trade, stated that, after conferring with many eminent agents from paper thus treated would damage the colour of the paper manufacturers, he had arrived at a conclusion that any new material itself. A paper has been read and a discussion has taken place on this must be obtainable at ld. or 1}d. per pound, in order fairly to meet subject before the Society of Arts during the present year (1860). all the requirements. Much valuable information has since been

Of the practical applications of paper little need be said : these are obtained from British consuls abroad, and especially from Dr. Forbes for the most part sufficiently obvious. The amateur arts of papyro- Royle and Dr. Hooker, concerning fibrous plants in various parts of graphy, papyro-plastics, potichomanie, &c., are little more than inge the world; and there is reason to hope that these researches will nious modes of cutting out sheets of paper. We may mention, ultimately lead to beneficial results. In 1859 an attempt was made however, the bituminised paper tubes made by M. Jaloureau. He to establish a manufacture of paper from flax-straw and flax refuse, by finds that when bitumen is mixed with chalk, and paper tubes are means of a joint stock company, on the basis of a patent obtained saturated with it, they become remarkably strong and durable, and by Mr. Houghton. Whether or not the process is a good one, the are available as water-pipes.

company itself has, we believe, not yet actually been formed. Materials for Paper--A little attention must now be paid to the Paper traile and duty.—Until 1837 the duty on paper was charged subject of the materials for paper, concerning which the manufacturers in two classes. That made whole out of old tarred rope, without have lately had many discussions. Repeated attempts have been made extracting the pitch or tar, was considered as second-class paper, and to manufacture paper from straw, but it is only recently that any paid only a duty of 1}d. per lb.; while paper made of any other materials success has been obtained. One mill in the United States now makes was considered as first-class paper, and was charged with a duty of 30 tons of this paper weekly. Wheat-straw is put into a large 3d. per lb. In the year above mentioned this distinction was abolished, spherical boiler, and there boiled for 24 hours at 320° Fahr., a and the duty on all kinds of paper was fixed at 1£d. per lb., which temperature obtained under great pressure. The straw becomes con- gave an immediate impulse to the trade. The effect of this change verted into a glutinous mass, which by further processes is available in augmenting the quantity used was soon shown. In round numbers, as pulp for paper. Dr. Collyer, in April, 1860, communicated to the the quantity made in 1835 and 1836 averaged 78 million lbs. a year, Society of Arts the result of an elaborate series of experiments on whereas in 1837 and 1838 it averaged 91 million lbs. Foreign paper the manufacture of paper from straw. He was led by his researches had not hitherto competed largely with home-made, because a Customs to recommend the following processes :—The straw is first passed duty had interfered with it. In 1857 and the two following years, the between two rollers rotating with different velocities; this produces a quantity of paper made in the United Kingdom was about 198, 193, trituratory action, which rubs out the knots and ears, and at the same and 218 million lbs. respectively; of which about one-twelfth was time opens the straw out to a partially fibrous state. The straw is exported, and eleven-twelfths used at home. The average quantity then exposed to the action of water heated by steam, and containing made at each mill may be inferred from the following table, applicable 3 ozs. of caustic alkali to the gallon. The apparatus is so arranged to the year 1859 :that the alkaline liquor can act over and over again upon the straw;

England and by repeated workings after this steeping, nearly all the gluten and

paper mills, silica are removed from the straw. The bleaching is effected by chloride of lime, with superheated steam. The making into pulp then ensues, and the manufacture proceeds as with rags. These operations, however, are quite tentative. All the straw paper hitherto made is Kent is the head-quarters of the manufacture; after which Hertford. unpleasantly crisp and brittle ; and it has been found that the price of shire and the neighbouring counties, Lancashire, and Devonshire. In straw goes up considerably whenever the paper-makers create a demand Scotland, Lanark, Midlothian, and Aberdeen are the chief paper-making for it. Nevertheless, two or three of the penny daily newspapers are

counties. printed on straw paper, and the experiment is felt to be worthy of Few public subjects have been more discussed within the last few further investigation.

years than the propriety of removing the excise duty on paper. This Another kind of paper is Schlesinger's, manufactured of wood. duty, of 1fd. per lb. plus 5 per cent., after a few drawbacks for Timber is cut by machinery into logs about eight inches in length. exportation, &c., yielded about a million and a quarter sterling of net These logs are made to press against a rotating grindstone made of very revenue annually to the state; and Chancellors of the Exchequer, rough stone, and well moistened with water. The wood is rubbed off | however favourable to the diffusion of cheap literature, have been in a state of fibrous pulp, which, either used by itself, or mixed in unwilling to part with this easily collected tax. In 1853, the Society certain proportions with rags, is converted into paper. A mill for the of Arts drew up a list of queries, and sent them to paper-manufacturers, manufacture of paper of this kind was opened at Bradford in 1854, the wholesale stationers, manufacturers of paper articles, publishers, newspaper produced being chiefly wrapping, packing, cartridge, and other paper proprietors, and authors, soliciting opinions as to the modes in coarse kinds. The wood pulp is said to be obtainable at about id. which the paper duty affected various branches of the public. Some per pound.

of these queries were-Does the mode in which the duty is collected The increasing importance of obtaining a supply of rags for paper- interfere injuriously with the process of manufacture, and in what way! making, and the restrictions placed by foreign governments on the sale Does it affect the quality and variety of the article manufactured! of such rags to England, have lately recalled attention to projects long Does it limit materially the quantity of the supply? Do the excise ago entertained. It is said that no less than 45,000 tons of linen rags, regulations interfere with the rapid execution of orders ? Does the all collected by the chiffoniers, or itinerant ragmen, were used in France mode of collection prevent the use of new materials ? Does it place in 1859 in paper-making; and the paper-manufacturers of that country the manufacturer at a disadvantage in the market? Much valuable strenuously oppose any plan which might lead to an increased sale to information was obtained in response to these queries. During the England. Nearly all vegetable fibrous substances, as was observed in a subsequent period of seven years (1854 to 1860 inclusive) great former paragraph, can be converted into paper; but the problem is, activity had been shown in the advocacy of the abolition of the duty, whether such paper would be fine enough, strong enough, and cheap by various bodies, and through the medium of various publications. enough to compete with rag-paper. The so-called Chinese rice-paper It is not now necessary to adduce the arguments used; for the tax is consists of thin films cut spirally from the branches of a particular on nearly all sides admitted to be a bad one. In the session of 1860, tree, the Eschynomene paludosa. There is in the British Museum Mr. Gladstone, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, moved the abolition a curious book, prepared by Jacob Christian Schäffer, a native of of the duty, in connection with a very extensive financial scheme, Ratisbon, about the year 1775. It describes the manufacture of including a commercial treaty with France, and a removal of Customs' paper from different substances, and the sixty leaves of which the duties from many minor articles. The bill for the abolition of the book is composed are made of sixty different kinds of paper. The paper duty was passed by the House of Commons, but rejected by the bark of the willow, beech, aspen, hawthorn, linden, and mulberry; House of Lords. The Customs duty on foreign paper of 2d. per lb,, the down of the catkins of the black poplar, and the silky down of the with 5 per cent. additional, has, however, been reduced to 1ļd. asclepias; the tendrils of the vine, the stalks of nettle, mugwort, and per lb. with 5 per cent, additional, the same rate as the excise dyers'-weed; various kinds of leaf, fibre, and stalk; as well as straw, duty on the home manufacture, so that the importation is now reeds, moss, lichens, wood shavings, sawdust, potatoes, and fir-cones— unimpeded. all were employed. The paper is in all the specimens of very inferior PAPIER-MÂCHÉ, the French term for a preparation of moistened quality, both in colour and texture; but unquestionably the same paper, of which many articles are manufactured in England, France, materials would yield better results, if treated with modern skill and and Germany. Such articles have been made in France for more than appliances. In 1854 the proprietors of one of our great newspapers ) a century. "In 1740 one Martin, a German varnisher, went to Paris

843

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common use.

to learn this manufacture from Lefevre. On returning to his own is light, strong, and facile of application as an architectural ornament. country, he was so successful in his exertions that his paper snuff- It is now much used in obtaining casts of statuettes, busts, dead boxes were called, after him, “ Martins.” So much money went from game, friezes, pilasters, foliage, &c. Messrs. Jackson and Graham have Prussia to France in purchase of papier-maché articles, that Frederic II., used this material very largely in the Army and Navy Club-house and in 1765, established a manufactory at Berlin, which soon became very other modern buildings. successful. Brunswick, Nürnberg, Vienna, and other German towns, Messrs. Bielefeld, among other inventions relating to papier-maché, by degrees commenced the manufacture, and it is now carried on to a have introduced a mode of grinding fibrous and other materials into a considerable extent.

consistence like that of putty; this is put into frames of a proper depth, Two modes are adopted of making articles of this kind : 1, By rolled and compressed, heated and oiled, and finished by painting or glueing or pasting different thicknesses of paper together; 2, By mixing varnishing. One among various compositions proposed is the followthe substance of the paper into a pulp and pressing it into moulds. ing :-32 lbs. flour, 9 lbs. alum, and 1 lb. copper are mixed with 80 lbs. The first mode is adopted principally for those articles, such as trays, water; to these are added 15 lbs. resin, 1 lb. litharge, and 10 lbs. boiled &c., in which a tolerably plain and flat surface is to be produced. | linseed oil; the whole is finally ground up with 60 lbs. rag-dust or Common millboard, such as forms the covers of books, may convey paper-makers' half-stuff. some idea of this sort of manufacture. Sheets of strong paper are PAPIST, an appellation derived from papa," the pope," and which glued together, and then so powerfully pressed that the different denotes a follower of the Roman Catholic church. That church calls strata of paper become as one. Slight curvatures may be given to itself catholic, which means “universal ;” but as other Christian such pasteboard when damp, by the use of presses and moulds. Some churches also style themselves“ catholic,” a distinction seems required of the snuff-boxes are made by glueing pieces of paper, cut to the sizes to avoid confusion. The appellation Roman Catholic is generally used of the top, bottom, and sides, one on another, round a frame or mould. all over Europe to denote a follower of the church of Rome, in conwhich is afterwards removed. Articles made of pasteboard have often tradistinction to the followers of other Christian communions; but in a fine black polish imparted to them in the following manner : After Great Britain the words Papist and Romanist have been long in being coated with a mixture of size and lampblack, they receive a coating of a peculiar varnish. Turpentine is boiled down till it PAPYRIN. A name given to a modification of cellulose produced becomes black, and three times as much amber in fine powder is by immersing blotting paper in strong sulphuric acid, then washing sprinkled into it, with the addition of a little spirit or oil of tur- with water, and finally immersing for a few seconds in water containing pentine. When the amber is melted, some sarcocolla and some more a trace of ammonia. The paper thus acquires physical properties spirit of turpentine are added, and the whole is well stirred. After resembling parchment. [ParchmENT, VEGETABLE.) being strained, this varnish is mixed with ivory-black, and applied in PAPYRUS. The name of a plant and the material made from it, a hot room on the papier-mâché articles, which are then placed in a especially that for writing used by the nations of antiquity. One of heated oven.

Two or three coatings of the black varnish will produce its names in the ancient Egyptian was P-apu (Select Papyri, PL xviii., a durable and glossy surface impervious to water. Some of the articles 1. 9.), which passed into Greek and Latin under the form papyrus ; by now made in this way have their surfaces inlaid with mother-of-pearl; the Hebrews it was called gome, which resembles the hieroglyphic the shell is fastened down to the surface as a veneer, an immense body goma, and Coptic gomi, a "book,” or “volume.” (Lepsius, Todt., lxxii. of varnish is laid on, and by rubbing the superfluous varnish from the 162. 9.) The Greeks also called it Byblos (Herod. ii. 92.), or deltos, pearl, the whole is brought to one common level, presenting a brilliant from the Delta, where it principally grew, and gave books this name if not always tasteful effect. The better kind of tea-trays are shaped (Winckelmann, ii. 96, 226, Dresd.). The term biblion, or bible, means in or rather on iron moulds, the top of the mould giving the shape of in fact, a book or roll of papyrus. The plant itself, the paper rush, the tray. The paper employed is a grayish, thick, granulated kind, or Cyperus antiquorum, called berd by the modern Egyptians, dismade expressly for the purpose. The mould and paper are taken to a tinguished by its tall prismatic, or triangular and tapering stem, heated stove-room to dry, after three thicknesses have been applied ; growing to the height of about 10 feet, surmounted by a downy and this removal is repeated from ten to forty times, for the trays are Hower, appears to have been abundant in Egypt at the early period of made of thicknesses of paper varying from thirty to a hundred and the 4th dynasty. On monuments of the reign of Chephren, and twenty. The surface of the mould is greased in the first instance, to Cheops, men are represented bearing bundles of this plant (Lepsius, ensure the easy removal of the papier-måché when of the proper thick. Denkm., ii

. 9-11), which they have gathered, or forming it into the ness. A patent was taken out a few years ago for making papier-maché light boats by which they crossed the marshes or the Nile (Lepsius, panels for carriages, and considerable skill has been shown in the Denkm., ii. 12). The principal site of its cultivation was the alluvial manufacture; but such panels are not much used in England, owing ponds uakh (Lepsius, Denkm., ii

. 74), where it is represented reaching the in part to the operation of the piper-duty.

height of 10 feet in the Delta (Lepsius, Denkm., ii. 106 a). As early as The second kind of papier-machó is, however, the more extensively the 5th dynasty, it appears in the hieroglyphics, either for the premade. It comprises that which is pressed into moulds in the state of paration of a colour for the eyes (Lepsius, ii. 22), or as designating the a pulp. This pulp is generally made of cuttings of coarse paper boiled land of northern Egypt or the Delta, where it particularly grew (Ibid. in water, and beaten in a mortar till they assume the consistence of a ii. 47); but as the plant has gradually disappeared from Egypt, some paste, which is boiled in a solution of gum-arabic or of size to give it naturalists have supposed that it was not indigenous, but introduced tenacity. The moulds are carved in the usual way, and the pulp from the Niger or Euphrates, where it is still found native, and that poured into them, a counter-mould being employed to make the cast it has become extinct for want of necessary culture. It has, however, nothing more than a crust or shell, as in plaster casts. In some manu- been seen as late as the 19th century on the borders of the lake factories, instead of using cuttings of made paper, the pulp employed Menzaleh, the Phætnitic Uylarus, in Upper Egypt and in Abyssinia. by the paper-maker is, after some further treatment, poured into the Some think indeed, that the term papyrus comprehended two or three moulds to produce papier mâché ornaments. The use of ornaments different kinds of reeds, such as the Cyperus dives, which is still made in the way just described is rapidly increasing. The carved and cultivated in Egypt, and that the disappearance of the Cyperus papyrus composition ornaments employed to decorate picture and looking- is owing to the monopoly of the Roman contractors or publicani, who glass frames are in some cases superseded by those of papier-maché ; restricted its culture to a few localities. (Strabo, xvii. 550 c.) but it is in the decoration of ceilings and walls of rooms and the According to Pliny, it grew ten feet above, and two in the water, besides interiors of public buildings that papier mâché is found most valuable. striking deep roots into the Nilotic mud, in the pools or marshes of the Plaster and composition ornaments are very ponderous ; carved orna- Sebynnitic and Saitic nomes. ments are costly; but those of paper are light and of moderate price. The papyrus was one of those plants which the ancients conIn many of our theatres, in the House of Lords, in the Pantheon verted to a multitude of uses. Its elegant and light flowers were Bazaar, in the saloons of some of the splendid steam-boats recently woven into crowns, and neither the Spartan Agesilaus nor the Mithrabuilt, and in numerous other instances where internal decorations are

dates VI., of the line of Pontus, disdained to use it for that purpose, required, papier mâché ornaments have been largely employed. Maps its pith or pulp was boiled and eaten, and considered the primitive in relief are also occasionally made of papier-mâché.

food of Egypt, the root, on the contrary, was dried and used for fuel, A remarkable instance of the employment of papier mâché is men.

the bark was manufactured into matting, sails, and ropes, bedding, and tioned in Ersch and Grüber's' Allgemeine Encyclopädie.' Near Bergen clothes. The priest used it only for sandals ; and sandals of it remain in Norway a church has been built capable of holding nearly a thousand to the present day in the collections of the British Museum. (Pliny, persons. This building is octagonal without, but perfectly circular N. H. xiii

. 11, 22, Strabo, xvii. 799. E), Boxes were also made of its within. The interior of the walls, as well as the exterior of the stems, trimmed and tied at the ends and middle; and in an ark or box Corinthian columns, is covered with papier mâché. The roof, the of papyrus, the youthful Moses was placed amongst the standing pools ceiling, the statues within the church, and the basso-rilievis on the of papyri. At the time of Homer, it was used by the Greeks for outside of the walls, are also made of this substance. The papier rigging (Odys. xxi. 391), and Antigonus used for the cables of his mâche was made water-proof, and nearly fire-proof, by an application feet, papyrus grown in Syria. The ancient Greek name for the mate. of vitriol-water and lime slaked with whey and white of egg.

rial was bublos, but it was not applied by prose writers to books An important modification of papier-mâché is that which is known (Lucan, iii. 222). by the name of carton pierre, or stone cardboard. This substance has The invention of papyrus for boats was attributed to Isis, who been employed for half a century in France, but its use in England has searched for her husband Osiris in a bark of this material, which was been much more recent. It is a mixture of paper pulp, whiting, and said to be especially shunned by crocodiles, probably the reason why glue. The mixture is pressed into moulds, then backed with paper, Moses was exposed in an ark of the same material by his mother. and removed to a drying room to harden. The substance, when dry, | These boats are mentioned by Isaiah, Theophrastus, and Pliny. But

a