Binitrophenate of ethyl yields ethyl-nitrophenidine or nitrophanetidine (Co(H.NO,)NO,) by the action of sulphide of ammonium.

10

3. Phenate of amyl or phenamylol is formed on heating a mixture of phenate of potash and iodide of amyl in a sealed tube to a temperature of about 220° Fahr. It is a limpid, colourless oil, of agreeable odour. Its boiling point is about 436° Fahr. Nitric acid strongly attacks it, and the resulting compound yields amyl-nitrophenidine by the action of sulphide of ammonium.

Oxyphenic acid. (C12HO) Binoxide of phenyl; pyrocatechin; pyromorin tannic acid. This body is a product of the dry distillation of CATEC HU or of morintannic acid [TANNIC ACID.] The aqueous portion of the distillate is evaporated and set aside; the impure oxyphenic acid that deposits may be purified by recrystallisation from water, and finally by sublimation.

Oxyphenic acid crystallises in colourless rectangular prisms; it is very soluble in water or alcohol, but only slightly so in ether.

Sulphate of phenyl (CHOS.0.). Sulphophenic or phenylsul

Trinitroxyphenic acid. (C12(H, 3 NO,)0) Oxypicric acid. Styphnic acid. The composition of this body indicates it a derivative of oxy-phenyl. Unlike phenylsulphurous acid, however, it remains insoluble phenic acid, but the latter body does not yield it on being acted upon when the product referred to is diluted with water. by nitric acid. It is most readily obtained by acting upon asafoetida or extract of Brazil-wood with nitric acid; many other gum-resins also yield it under similar circumstances. The liquid product of the action of nitric acid upon these bodies is neutralised with carbonate of potash and crystals of styphnate of potash obtained by evaporation; these may be recrystallised from a small quantity of boiling water or the styphnic acid precipitated by nitric acid. Brazil-wood extract furnishes about 18 per cent. of styphnic acid. It may be obtained in large yellow prismatic crystals from solution in alcohol. It combines with acids to form crystalline salts, called styphnates or oxypicrates. They all explode violently when gently heated.

Sulphites of phenyl. Hydride of phenyl dissolves in fuming sulphuric acid, and forms phenylsulphurous or sulphobenzidic acid, C12H,SO, O но

It may be looked upon as the hydrated oxide of the radical sulphophenyl (C12H,S,O,). It forms extremely stable salts with acids called phenylsulphites, or sulphobenzidates. Nitric acid converts it into nitrophenylsulphurous or nitrosulphobenzidic acid, C12(H ̧NO1)S ̧O, O

Η ΟΣ

Chloride of sulphophenyl (C12H,S,O,, Cl) is a colourless oil, of sp. gr. 1.378, and boiling point 489-2. It is formed on distilling phenylsulphite of soda with oxychloride of phosphorus. It is readily attacked by ammonia, with production of sulphophenylamide; and the latter, by the ordinary process of substitution, yields the following primary, secondary, and tertiary monamides, including a tertiary diamide:

phuric acid. A combination of phenic and sulphuric acids. It forms
crystalline salts with ammonia and baryta.
Chloride of phenyl, or chlorhydrophenide (C12H,, Cl). A product of
the action of oxychloride of phosphorus on phenic acid. It is an
almost inodorous liquid, heavier than water.

59

Chloride of binitrophenyl, or binitrochlorhydrophenide (C12(H32NO,), C1), is produced on acting upon binitrophenic acid with perchloride of phosphorus. It much resembles chloride of phenyl.

Aniline, phenylia, or phenylamine (N

H

and its numerous

interesting derivatives, will be found described in a separate article [ANILINE], or under ORGANIC BASES.

Cyanide of phenyl (C,,H,Cy). Benzonitrile. Obtained by the distillation of dried benzoate of ammonia, as described under BENZOIC ACID. It a colourless oil, having an odour resembling that of bitter almond oil. It is soluble in alcohol or ether, but almost insoluble in water. Its sp. gr. is 1.0073; boiling point, 376° Fahr. Fuming nitric acid converts it into cyanide of nitrophenyl (C12(H.NO), Cy), or nitrobenzonitrile. PHENYL-PHTHALIMIDE. [NAPHTHALIC GROUP.]

PHENYL-SULPHURIC ACID (C,,H,S,O,). Sulphophenylic acid. A monobasic acid bearing the same relation to phenylic alcohol as sulphovinic acid sustains towards common or vinic alcohol. PHENYL-SULPHUROUS ACID (C12HS2O). Sulphobenzidic acid. A crystalline organic acid, obtained by gently heating benzole with its own volume of sulphurous acid. Its salts are monobasic and very stable.

PHIAL, LEYDEN. [ELECTRICITY.]

PHIGALIAN MARBLES, a series of sculptures in alto-rilievo, preserved in the British Museum, which are so called from having been discovered among the ruins of a temple at the ancient Bassa on Mount Cotylion, not far from the site of Phigalia. The subjects represented in them are the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithe, which occupies eleven slabs, and that of the Greeks and Amazons, in twelve slabs.

Fig. 1.

!

PHIGALIAN, MARBLES.

468

but the composition, expression, and style of art prove that they came times) of the temples which they decorated. The name of the archifrom a fine school of design. The evidence of this in the works them tect was Ictinus, the same who, when Phidias was appointed to selves is confirmed by the history (which has fortunately reached our superintend the various public works carried on at Athens during the

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

administration of Pericles, was associated with Callicrates to erect the undertaking. It is not difficult to discern in them the same sentiment Parthenon-one of the most splendid monuments of the golden age of and character which pervade the marbles of the Parthenon. This art. This gives us the proximate date of the execution of the sculp- correspondence is particularly observable in comparing portions of the tures under consideration. The Parthenon was finished about 437 B... Phigalian frieze with the metopes of that building (see figs. 1 ang? The temple of Apollo at Bassæ may therefore be attributed to about [Phigalian Marbles]; the third cut in the article CENTAUR, which is the same period.

one of the Phigalian series ; and fig. 1 under Elgin MARBLES), where The quality of the design of these rilievi warrants the assumption the same subject, the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ, is re prethat the eminent sculptor who directed the decoration of the former sented. The same may be remarked with respect to other parts of great work of Ictinus may have contributed the advantage of his skill this fine series, whether it be considered for the energy display ted in oy suggesting the fine composftions of the sculptures for his present violent action (figs. 1, 2, and 4; and the cut in the article CENT BAUR),

6

for grace and tenderness where gentler expression is to be conveyed meanings attached to the word philology, may consult Ast's 'Grundriss (figs. 3 and 5), for playful flow of lines (as in groups in figs. 3 and 4), der Philologie,' Landshut, 1808; and the first essay in Wolf and or for the just balancing of parts as the means of producing a harmo- Buttmann's Museum der Alterthums-Wissenschaft, Berlin, 1807. nious whole. Throughout there is the stamp of careful thought, and PHILOSOPHY, from the Greek philosophia (pilooopia), literally evidence of an intimate knowledge of art, combined with a free and signifies“ love of wisdom or knowledge," and a philosopher (Q.Aboupos), bold style. Among the excellencies of treatment, as it is technically is a "lover of wisdom.” Pythagoras (Diog. Laert., Proæm.) is said to called, the value and quality of flesh and drapery in contrast, are have first used the term philosophy, and to have called himself a finely exhibited in parts of figs. 3 and 4. The few specimens here philosopher, instead of a sophus (cópos), or “wise man,” for, he added, chosen for illustration are sufficient to show the claim these marbles no one is wise but God. Among the Greeks, philosophy was somehave to our admiration as compositions. The difference alluded to in times viewed as comprising or consisting of three parts, physic (PVolkóY), the merit of the execution may probably be owing to the working out ethic (horkov), and dialectic (dialeKTIKÓW). Physic treated of the of the general design having been entrusted either to pupils or to universe and that which it contained; ethic treated of things that various and inferior artists, the idea and the compositions alone being concerned human life and man. The term dialectic is explained in the furnished by the master-mind.

article ORGANON. These interesting specimens of Greek sculpture were discovered in The 'terms philosophy, philosophical, philosopher, are often used in the year 1812. _ They were purchased for the British Museum in 1814, our own language apparently with no great precision, though it is not and arrived in England in the following year. The slabs were found, difficult to deduce from the use of these terms the general meaning or with two or three exceptions, lying on the floor or pavement of the notion which is attached to them. We speak of the philosophy of the temple, under the identical places they had originally occupied. They human mind as being of all philosophies that to which the name were much mutilated, both from the injury they had sustained from philosophy is particularly appropriated; and when the term philosophy their own weight in falling, and from the heavy masses of the building is used absolutely, this seems to be the philosophy that is spoken of. which had fallen on them. They have been put together with great Other philosophies are referred to their several objects by qualifying care, the pieces being secured by copper bolts; but in no instance has terms ; thus we speak of natural philosophy, meaning thereby the their integrity been impaired by restorations. For detailed descriptions philosophy (whatever that word may mean) of nature, that is, as the of these marbles, the reader is referred to the elaborate work of Baron term nature is generally understood, of material objects. We also von Stackelberg, ' Der Apollotempel zu Bassæ in Arcadien,' &c., Rome, speak of the philosophy of positive law, understanding thereby the 1826 ; also to Part IV. of . Description of the Ancient Marbles in the philosophy of those binding rules, properly called laws. The terms British Museum;' and to the • Elgin Marbles,' in the Library of philosophy of history, philosophy of manufactures, and other such Entertaining Knowledge.'

terms, are also used. All objects then which can occupy the mind PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, is one of the epistles written may have something in common, called their philosophy; which by St. Paul during his first imprisonment at Rome. (Paul, St., in philosophy is nothing else than the general expression for that effort of Biog. Div.] Like the other early churches planted out of Palestine, the mind whereby it strives, pursuant to its laws, to reduce its the church at Philippi in Macedonia consisted of Jews and Gentiles, the knowledge to the form of ultimate truths or principles, and to latter forming the larger portion. These Philippians must, however, determine the immutable relations which exist between things as it have had cultivated minds, and have been acquainted with the manners, conceives them. The philosophy which comprises within itself all customs, and philosophy of the Greeks, since the epistle contains philosophies is that which labours to determine the laws or ultimate allusions the force of which no other persons could fully understand. principles in obedience to which the mind itself operates; and both They were first converted by the preaching of St. Paul about twelve those laws or ultimate truths, which must be considered as constituting years before the date of this epistle, which was written apparently the mind what it is, and which are therefore independent of all external (ii. 24) but a short time before his release from his imprisonment at impressions, and those laws by which the mind operates upon the Rome, A.D. 63.

sensuous impressions produced by objects which it conceives and can The occasion of its composition seems to have been the following : only conceive as being external to itself. the Philippians, having heard that St. Paul was a prisoner at Rome, Thus every kind of knowledge, the objects of which are things sent contributions for his relief by the hand of Epaphroditus, whom external, has its philosophy or principles, which, when discovered and Theodoret and others represent as their bishop. St. Paul, being much systematised, form the science of the things to which they severally rejoiced by this proof of their affection towards him, and by learning belong. But inasmuch as the mind, in striving after this science, how great was their proficiency in all Christian excellences, sends back must act by its own laws and powers, and as these must in their form, Epaphroditus with this epistle.

viewed independently of their special objects, always be the same In this epistle, of which the canonical authority is incontestable, laws and powers (for we cannot conceive the mental powers to vary or St. Paul discovers much of his own character, the traits of which differ in their essential qualities merely because they are applied to cannot fail to create in the mind of an attentive reader an idea of true things that are conceived as different), we therefore assume that the dignity. He delicately proposes his own conduct for the imitation of mind has its laws and powers, which may be discovered by observathe Philippians; and, with no mixture of affected humility, he dis- tion, as we discover by observation the laws or principles which govern claims all personal merit for whatever wisdom or goodness they had the relations of things external to the mind, or conceived as external. seen in him or heard of him. His language is for the most part con- Thus the human mind, by the necessity imprinted upon it, seeks to structed with great skilfulness; his thoughts are arranged in an order discover the ultimate foundation of all that it knows or conceives; to exactly suited to his design; and his manner is at once affectionate and discover what itself is, and what is its relation to all things. Accorauthoritative.

dingly it strives to form a system out of all such ultimate laws or PHILIPPICS. (DEMOSTHENES, in Biog. Div.]

principles. Such a system may be called a philosophy, in the proper PHILLIRIN (C,H,,0,9+ 3 Aq.) A white crystalline substance of a and absolute sense of the term, and the attempt to form such a system silvery lustre found in the bark of the Phillyrea latifolia. It is is to philosophise. Systems of philosophy have existed in all nations ; inodorous, bitter, slightly soluble in cold water, moderately so in even in the most uncivilised, in some form, and particularly in the boiling water or alcohol, and nearly insoluble in ether. Boiled with form of a religion; for the highest aim of philosophy is to ascertain dilute hydrochloric acid it is transformed into phillygenin (a resinous the relation of man to the infinite Being whom he conceives as the end substance of the formula C.,1,0,.) and grape sugar.

and limit of all his inquiries. In nations which have made further ,.

progress in mental culture, the systems of philosophy are not limited Cs, 1.0, + C.1: : C,,H,,0g + C,1,2012

to the dogmas of a religion, but those who have leisure, and whose Phillyrin. Phillygonin. Grape eugar.

minds have been disciplined, have in all ages ventured to transcend the

limits of the religious system of their society or age, and to form what PHILOʻLOGY (Plodovia). It is difficult to attach a precise meaning are called philosophical systems. The history of such systems is the to this word, as it is used in different significations by different writers. history of philosophy, which thus viewed is a history of the progress of Anong the Greeks and Romans, the term philology was originally used the human mind towards the knowledge of itself, a knowledge which, to signify a love for the investigation of all subjects connected with imperfect as it is, is the accumulation of many centuries, and the work literature (Plat., " Theret.,' c. x. p. 146 ; c. xlvii. p. 161; Cic. ' ad Div.' of many contributors. xvi. 21 ; Ernesti, 'Clavis Ciceron.,' under pionoywtepa.) The Alex. PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN MIND. [METAPHYSICS.) andrine critics applied the term philologus to a person who was well PHILOSOPHY, POSITIVE. The distinction of philosophy as acquainted with the ancient Greek writers, and with the subjects positive and negative, was adopted by the German school. Thus treated of in their works; and we learn from Suetonius (* De Illustr. Kant's 'Kritik der Reinen Vernunft,' his · Prolegomena zu einer jeden Grammat., c. 10), that Eratosthenes, who lived in the 2nd century Künftigen Metaphysik,' and his ' Kritik der Urtheilskraft,' are regarded before the Christian era, was the first who obtained this name, in con- as forming a sort of Prima Philosophia, preparatory to a positive or sequence of his extensive and varied learning. In later times, a formal and detailed system of metaphysics. For though the philophilologus was merely a person skilled in language, and the word sophies which have successively arisen in Germany since Kant's day, became almost synonymous with grainmaticus.

such as the Scientific-doctrine of Fichte, the Transcendental Idealism Some modern writers have included under the term philology the of Schelling, the Phenomenology and Logic of Hegel, or the (Metastudy of Greek and Roman antiquities, but the majority of writers physic of Herbart, are all genealogically descended from Kant's Critical appear to regard the study of the theory of language and of languages review (the review which reason was made by him to engage in, of the in general as the only subjects strictly belonging to philology.

faculties of the soul), yet Kant himself, in his Kritik, did not profess The reader who wishes further information respecting the different to do more then pave the way for a system or dogmatik of speculativo

26

2110

colours.

bitter, followed with slight sweetness; it is scarcely soluble in cold
water, but boiling water dissolves it in large quantity; alcohol and
pyroxylic spirit also readily take it up, and at all temperatures; ether,
even when boiling, dissolves only traces of it, though, when mixed
with alcohol, it dissolves it very well; it has no action on vegetable
Phlorizin is by various processes, described by M. Stass, converted
into phlorizein (C,HNO2), phloretin (CH.010), Phloroglucin
(C12HO+4 Aq.), Rufin (C12H2001), phloretic acid (CH3(NO)010);
for an account of these, we refer to his memoir contained in the 69th
vol. of Annales des Chimie et de Physique.'
PHLOROGLUCIN. [PHLORIZIN.]

12

14

14

PHLORONE. (C1HO2) A yellow oil obtained by the dry distil lation of camphorate of lime. It emits an odour like peppermint. PHOCENIC ACID. [VALERIANIC ACID.]

PHOCENIN. Synonymous with VALERIN.

philosophy. Kant's main question proposed for solution in the criticism of reason was, 66 are metaphysics possible?" or, are synthetic judgments à priori possible?—judgments, or propositions, that is--the truth of which is not learned from experience, and which also are not merely analytical, or judgments in which the predicate barely unfolds the subject. Thus "all body is extended," is an analytical judgment: "all men are mortal," is synthetical indeed, but then it is à posteriori, being founded on experience: but, "every change must have a cause," is synthetical à priori, being universal and necessary, and founded in nothing but "pure understanding and reason." Now all such axioms, conceptions, and principles as are à priori, being enumerated, are regarded by those who make a distinction between positive and negative philosophy, as forming a negative philosophy, or as drawing the ground for a positive constructive system. Kant held out the expectation of such a system, as a superstructure to be erected by himself on the basis of the Kritik:' such a system of pure speculative reason I hope "to furnish myself, under the title, Metaphysic of Nature; which shall have far richer matter than this Kritik, though the latter was necessary, first to exhibit the sources and conditions of its possibility, and to cleanse and level a soil altogether overgrown with weeds." ("Kritik:' Vorrede.) Such a system would have been, in the German phrase, a positive philosophy: but the Transcendental Criticism professes only to examine and secure the foundation on which, the author says, every future metaphysic" must be built, and is, relatively to such supposed system, merely negative. The Positive Philosophy that Kant and the German metaphysicians only contemplated was at length propounded by M. August Comte, in his Cours de Philosophie Positive,' in 1830-1842, and his Discours sur l'Ensemble du Positivisme,' 1848. According to his system the human mind has passed through certain stages: the theological, in which supernatural agencies are necessary; the metaphysical, in which super-coloured, and part crimson; and he is for the most part very like to natural aids are dismissed, and their place supplied by abstract ideas. These stages he deems incorrect, and holds that the mind now arrives at the last and highest stage the positive, in which it grasps all that can be known with certainty, such as scientific truths, and holds that in other more complex subjects, such as Biology and Sociology (social science), definite laws prevail which may be ultimately discovered by strict observation and deduction, and that nothing is to be believed that cannot be proved. [COMTE, in BIOG. DIV.]

66

PHOENIX (Povic), one of the most renowned of the fabulous monsters of antiquity, defined by the Arabians to be a "creature whose name is known, its body unknown." (Richardson's 'Arabic and Persian Dict.') The earliest author who mentions it is Hesiod (ap Plut., ' De Defectu Orac.,' cap. 11; and ap. Plin., 'Hist. Nat.,' lib. vii. cap. 49), who merely says that it lives nine times as long as a crow The first detailed description and history that we meet with is in Herodotus, whose words on that account deserve to be quoted at length. "There is also," says he, in his account of Egypt (lib. ii., cap. 73)," another sacred bird, the name of which is the phoenix; I have not myself seen it except in a picture, for it seldom visits them, only (as the people of Heliopolis say) every five hundred years. And they say that he only comes when his sire dies. And he is, if he is like his picture, of size and shape as follows: part of his plumage is goldthe eagle in outline and bulk. And this bird, they say, devises as follows, but they say what is to me beyond belief: that setting out from Arabia, he brings his sire to the temple of the sun; that he covers him with myrrh, and buries him in the temple of the sun; and that he covers him thus: first he forms an egg of myrrh as large as he is able to bear, and afterwards tries whether he can carry it; and when he has made the trial, upon this he hollows out the egg, and puts his sire into it, and covers with other myrrh that part of the egg where he had made the hole and put in his sire; and when his sire lies inside, the weight [of the egg] is the same [as it was before it was hollowed out], and having covered him up, he conveys him to Egypt into the temple of the sun. Such are the things which they say this bird. performs." Such is the story as told in Herodotus, and it is substantially the same as what was afterwards, though with various embellishments, repeated and believed for more than a thousand years. It would be tedious and useless to quote the words of each author who forms the link in the chain: it will be sufficient to mention that between the times of Herodotus and Tacitus, the fable of the 'Phoenix' is told more or less fully and circumstantially by numerous classical writers. Of these writers perhaps the only passage curious enough to be particularly noticed is that in Lampridius, who tells us that Heliogabalus promised his guests a phoenix for supper; he was, however, obliged to be content with a dish of the tongues of phoenicopters (or flamingoes).

PHOSPHORIC ACID, MEDICAL PROPERTIES OF. Dry phosphosphorus imparts. These properties have secured for it extensive phoric acid is sometimes used in the form of pills, but this is not an eligible mode; the common form is that of solution, constituting the dilute acid of the Pharmacopoeia.' This differs from the other dilute