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Dr. Carpenter has lately (Feb. 24, 1860) returned to this subject, in convertibility of heat, electricity, magnetism, chemical action, and a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution, and printed in the motion, is a familiar thought.”. This is forcibly put, and is perfectly Proceedings' at the meetings of the members, vol. iii., pp. 206-209, On true; but the mutual convertibility of the forces enumerated has only the Relation of the Vital to the Physical Forces.' Heargues, that when become " a familiar thought” since Mr. Grove's announcement of the we carefully look into the question, we find that what the germ really principle of their correlation. No one, however, could have more supplies is not the force but the directive agency. This agency may be perfectly realised the conception of that principle, or appreciated its regarded, he observes, like magnetism, as a static force; and just as importance, than Dr. Faraday, as indeed the preceding extract may magnetism requires to be (as we have already seen from Mr. Grove) itself show. The latest course of lectures delivered by him (and combined with motion to enable it to develope electricity, so does the published in the Chemical News') consisted of . Illustrations of the directive agency of the germ need the co-operation of a dynamic force Various Forces of Matter,-i. l., of such as are called the Physical or for the manifestation of its organising power. That dynamic force is Inorganic Forces, including an Account of their Relations to each heat, the influence of which upon the rate of growth and development, other.' The subject of the concluding lecture, given on the 7th of both animal and vegetable, is so marked as to have universally January last (1860), was, eo nomine,“ The Correlation of the Physical attracted the attention of physiologists, who, however, have only Forces, of which many experimental demonstrations were shown, recognised in it a vital stimulus, calling forth the latent power of the relating chiefly to the change of chemical force into electricity, and of germ, instead of looking upon it as itself furnishing the power that electricity into magnetism; and this eminent explorator of physical does the work. It is indeed only when the physiological survey is truth, observing to his audience that he might show them many other extended from the vital phenomena of warm-blooded animals to those experiments by which he could obtain electricity and chemical of cold blooded animals and of plants, that the immediate and direct action, heat and light from a magnet, terminated his course by the relation between heat and vital energy, as manifested in the rate of emphatic question, " But what more need I show you to prove the growth and development, or of other changes peculiar to the living universal correlation of the physical forces of matter, and their mutual body, is unmistakeably manifested. “Hence,” Dr. Carpenter con- conversion one into another!" cludes, after summarily reviewing the phenomena of vegetable life A certain amount of anticipation of Mr. Grove's views has been under this point of view, we seem justified in affirming that the recently claimed by Professor Tyndall ("Glaciers of the Alps,' p. 300) correlation between heat and the vital force of plants is not less for the late M. Rendu, bishop of Annecy, the author of a remarkable intimate than that which exists between heat and motion. The essay on glaciers, published in 1841. In considering what he calls the special attribute of the vegetable germ is its power of effecting the law of circulation," and after alluding to the circulation of water metamorphosis, and of utilising the organising force according to the through terrestrial nature, and that of the elements of organic subplan of construction characteristic of each species."

stances from the solid to the fluid, and thence again to the state of For the details of Mr. Grove's own illustrations and applications of organisation, M. Rendu adds, " That universal agent which we his doctrine, we must refer to his work itself, in which, also, are given designate by the names fire, light, electricity and magnetism, has prohis views of the intrinsic nature of the physical forces ; views which bably also a circulation as wide as the universe." But this is exactly are inseparable, in his opinion, from the dogma of their correlation. one of those comparatively vague notions, however true in their In this, however, we cannot agree with him. That dogma, we con degree, referring the forces of nature to a common principle, which ceive, will remain a concrete expression of the truth, as a first approx- have been alluded to in the introductory part of this article, and to imation of great generality, and in point of time the first approximation which every period in the history of philosophy, for at least a century to a general theory, whatever notion may be finally established of the before, supplies a parallel. When Professor Tyndall in sequence nature of the forces concerned, and whether heat, for instance, be claims also for Rendū, on the same account, a degree of anticipation of regarded as a motion of the particles of ordinary matter—that is of the Helmholz's more recent doctrine of the 'Conservation of Force,' quotmatter exhibiting its phenomena-or as a motion of a calorific ethering the latter as saying in reference to the “circuit” formed by “ heat, pervading that matter. This discrimination we believe will be found light, electricity, magnetism, and chemical affinity," "starting from important in the further application and investigation of the subject. each of these different manifestations of natural forces, we can set In the article GROVE, WILLIAM ROBERT, in the BIOGRAPHICAL DIVISION every other in action," he ascribes to Helmholz what had before been of this work, some remarks relevant on this head, have been offered explicitly enunciated by Grove, almost in the same words, as may be with respect to the history and interpretation of the principle of the seen in the preceding statement of his doctrine. Correlation of Physical Forces, to which we may now refer as com. Dr. (late Professor) James D. Forbes (* Reply to Tyndall on Rendu ') pleting, together with the present and following remarks, our view of has already noticed the futility of these claims; but what he, by the the subject.

free application of meiosis, calls “the theoretical inferences of Mossrs. Dr. Faraday's brilliant series of discoveries respecting the forces of Grove and Helmholz,” Faraday, as we have seen, accepts as demonnature, and their relations to each other and to matter, of which strated principles of nature, and Professor Le Conte, we shall presently Volta's discovery of the pile, Davy's application of it to electrolysis, find, regards as forming “a necessary truth,” and “one of the grandest Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, Seebeck's of thermo-elec. generalisations in modern science.". tricity, Tyndall's of the relation to structural density of paraand Two remarkable circumstances have characterised the history of the dia-magnetism, and Mr. Grove's own discovery of the gas-battery, may reception of Mr. Grove's doctrine of correlation. Many physicists and be cited as parallels of single terms in that series,-have probably others who admit in a general manner the principle, seem very unwillcontributed more than those of any other experimental philosopher to ing to use the term; while others who explicitly adopt and advocate prepare the scientific public mind for the idea of correlation; and they both, seem equally unwilling to ascribe them to their author, and omit have had this effect, not only on account of their aggregate magni- all reference to him. tude, as constituting so great a part of the advance in physics made Thus, in Professor Liebigs 'Familar Letters on Chemistry' (1858), in during the last sixty years, but because, from their bearing so exten- the preface to the fourth edition, the introduction of a letter (the 13th) sively on what Dr. Faraday calls “ the dual forms of power," electricity on the Correlation of the Forces of Inorganic Nature,' is announced in and magnetism, they have exhibited both the actuality of physical the preface, but neither in that nor in the letter itself is Mr. Grove correlation, and the convertibility of force, in a manner 80 palpably mentioned, nor indeed are his views given, though his designation of intelligible. In the relations subsisting between positive and negative the subject is thus unreservedly employed. It is applied, in the electricity, and north and south magnetism, respectively, we have letter, chiefly to a view of natural forces taken by Dr. Mayer of the mental idea of correlation realised to sensible perception. The Heilbronn, asserting both their indestructibility and their convertirelation of those forces themselves is probably a not less perfect cor- bility, as consequences of the axiom Causa æquat effectum, but relation, though perhaps of a different order; while their mutual not dated, and apparently subsequent to the views both of Helmholz convertibility, in which electro-magnetism and magneto-electricity and of Grove. originate, is so readily demonstrated by experiment.

The following introductory paragraph of an excellent paper by In an addition (June, 1858) to his discourse on the “ Conservation Professor Le Conte, of South Carolina College, Columbia, U. S., . On of Force," (a designation introduced we believe by Helmholz, the Correlation of Physical, Chemical, and Vital Force, and the Conin advocating a principle long tacitly admitted in particular cases, servation of Force in Vital Phenomena,' contains one of the most but which had not before been explicitly recognised in its true emphatic and adequate recognitions of the importance of those princigenerality,) delivered in the preceding year (Exp. Res. in Chem. ples and intelligible terse statements of their nature which has yet and Phys. p. 461-462), Dr. Faraday says—" Those who admit the appeared; though, even in this, no allusion is made either to Mr. possibility of the common origin of all physical force, and also Grove or to M. Helmholz, and the uninformed reader might be led to acknowledge the principle of conservation, apply that principle suppose that being necessary truths they had always been self-evident. to the sum total of the force. Though the amount of mechanical “Matter constantly changes its form, but is itself indestructible, force (using habitual language for convenience sake ) may remain except by the same power which called it into being. The same unchanged and definite in its character for a long time, yet when, quantity of matter exists in the universe at all times. So also force as in the collision of two equal inelastic bodies, it appears to changes its form constantly, but is itself indestructible, incapable of be lost, they find it in the form of heat, and whether they admit increase or diminution, and the same absolute amount of force exists that heat to be a continued mechanical action ( as is most pro- in the universe at all times and for ever. The mutual convertibility bable), or assume some other idea, as that of electricity, or action of of the various forms of force is called correlation of forces.' The a heat-fluid, still they hold to the principle of conservation by invariability of the absolute amount in the midst of constant change admitting that the sum of force, that is, of the cause of action,' is is called conservation of force. This principle of correlation and conthe same, whatever character the effects assume. With them the servation of force must be looked upon as one of the grandest

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PHYSICIAN.

p. 133.

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generalisations in modern science, a principle startling at first, but and of the same intrinsic inertia. According to these hypotheses, the when clearly understood and firmly grasped, almost axiomatic. It different phenomena and properties of bodies depend only on the mag. must be considered a necessary truth, and, as such, is a legitimate nitudes of their atoms, the proportions in which they are composed of basis of deductive reasoning. The correlation of physical forces is atoms of different magnitudes, and on the arrangements of the atoms." universally recognised as a principle in science, and not only so, but As the explanation of the sensible properties of matter must be prehas already been productive of many beautiful and useful results.” ceded by a mathematical investigation of the laws of the dynamic For Professor Le Conte's application of the principle to the history of action of the assumed etherial medium, Professor Challis has organic nature, we must refer to the paper itself. Amer. Journ. of already entered on such an investigation relatively to light, heat, Science,' Nov. 1859, reprinted in Phil. Mag. Fourth Series,' vol. xix., the force of gravity, the forces of molecular aggregation, and the

force of electricity; and is still proceeding with the explanation of his Again, in the introductory address delivered on the opening of St. theory. Thomas's Hospital Medical College, Southwark, London, on the 1st of We will conclude this article by the suggestion that progress in the present month (October, 1860) by Mr. R. D. Grainger, F.R.S., natural philosophy, in both the directions indicated above, would which has the emphasis of being also a valedictory address on his probably be effected by the experimental and mathematical investigaretirement from the chair of physiology in that school, we find the tion of the following theorem: following passages, which are here cited, not merely for the purpose of Taking space to be the extension of material substance, the resultant claiming for Mr. Grove what of right belongs to him, but because we of its dimensions, and mere consequence of its existence; and motion have in them the sentiments of an eminent physiologist on the cor- to be the substitution of one portion of matter for another, identical relation of the vital and physical forces. “In the case of the forces with the succession of phenomena, our perception of which is time: implicated respectively in inorganic and organised bodies, it may in heat and light are correlates of each other, being also, as we receive the present state of knowledge be very difficult to demonstrate their them from the sun, and as existing in their terrestrial form, affecultimate identity. Nor need this be a matter of surprise when we tions of an ether pervading space and ordinary ponderable matter ; recollect how very recently the intimate relations of the several but acting as the initiating forces in respect of electricity, mag. physical forces themselves have been discovered by such researches as netism, and chemical affinity, which are correlates of each other of those of Oersted, Faraday, and Graham. Chemical force, electricity, a different order, and derivative affections of the ether (perhaps, also, magnetism, caloric, and light, act and react on each other in the mode derivatively from the ether, of the matter exhibiting their phenomena), signified by the term correlation, and are probably, as many profound the apparent production of heat and light by them being in reality the philosophers suppose, only different manifestations of one universal all. evolution only of those initiating forces: all these forces have the power prevading force.” Proceeding next to the organic forces, the experi- of substituting one portion of matter for another, or of causing motion; ments of Matteuci on the nervous and muscular forces are noticed, the apparent agency of time and motion being merely the continutogether with Dr. Todd's proof that the latter is not itself electricity, ance and consequent accumulation of action. the evidence of which is stated to be afforded by “phenomena the PHYSICIAN ( quoukos), a word derived from púors, nature, which very counterpart of what Professor Müller pointed out years ago, in meant originally what we should now call a natural philosopher, or one regard to the nervous and electric forces.” “Now, although,” Mr. of those persons who have for their object the investigation of nature Grainger continues, "this may seem to indicate an ultimate and essen- and its laws, in opposition to oi houkol, or those who examine particutial difference between the electric and muscular currents, it presents larly into the moral nature of men. [PHILOSOPHY.] In English howthe very same condition of things as that expressed by the term ever the word physician is used only to designate the professors of the

correlation of forces.'” Farther on he alludes to the maxim, that there healing art, called in Greek latpoi, and in Latin medici ; while in most is no creation of force, observing that “no force is ever manifested (if not all) other European lanaguages the derivatives of the Greek without an equivalent change of matter, which change, according to word are still employed in their original meaning, and the idea of the wide generalisation of one of our former colleagues, my friend, Dr. healing is expressed either by some native word or by one derived Leeson, is in every form--light, electricity, magnetism, gravitation, from the Latin.* The origin and progress of physic, together with an &c.—ultimately resolvable into motion." ‘Lancet,' 1860, vol. ii. account of the different medical sects, has been given already under p. 352, 353.

MEDICINE; in the present article it is proposed to mention some of Whether Dr. Leeson's generalisation was enunciated prior to Mr. the most curious and interesting facts respecting the rank, education, Grove's we are not aware; but it is simply one elementary correlation &c., of the physicians of antiquity, and afterwards to state the legal of the latter. The reader will have observed that while the doctrine, qualifications for practising this branch of the medical profession in as well as the designation, of the correlation of forces is fully adopted, our own country. Mr. Grove's name is not mentioned; nor does it occur anywhere in In Greece and Asia Minor the profession of medicine seems to have Mr. Grainger's address.

been held in high esteem, for, not to mention the apotheosis of ÆscuWe have endeavoured in this article to do justice to Mr. Grove, and lapius, who was considered as the father of it, there was a law at to the subject to which he has devoted so much attention and thought. Athens that no female or slave should practise it (Hyginus, ' Fab.,' cap. The progress of science, in its approach to the abstract truth, consists 274); Ælian mentions one of the laws of Zaleucus among the Epizepartly in the ascent to higher and higher generalisations successively, phyrian Locrians, by which it was ordered that if any one during his and partly in the limitation of generalisations previously attained, or, in illness should drink wine contrary to the orders of his physician, even other words, the verification of hypotheses. Fully believing the doctrine if he should recover, he should be put to death for his disobedience of the correlation of physical forces, we stated several years since our('Var. Hist..' lib. ii., cap. 37); and there are extant several medals opinion that that doctrine is the expression of the deeper or higher struck by the people of Smyrna in honour of different persons belongtruth, that they are all, not excluding mechanical force, effects, or ing to the medical profession. (Mead's 'Dissertatio de Nummis quiaffections, of the ether,-the ether of Hooke, Young, and Fresnel, and busdam & Smyrnæis in Medicorum Honorem percussis,'4to.,Lond. 1724.) generally of the mathematicians and physicists who have advocated the If the Decree of the Athenians (published among the letters of Hippoundulatory theory of light and of heat. In the Philosophical Maga- crates) be genuine, and if Soranus (' in Vita Hippocr.?) can be depended zine' for January, 1859, Professor Challis of Cambridge, thus intro-on, the same honours were conferred upon that physician as had before duces his theory of the principle :-" It appears to be established by been given to Hercules; he was voted a golden crown, publicly initiated modern experimental researches, that the different physical forces are into the Eleusinian mysteries, and maintained in the Prytaneum at the mutually related by some common condition, or bond of connexion; state's expense. (See also Pliny, 'Hist. Nat.,' lib. vii., cap. 37.) Some but what the precise nature of the connexion is, perhaps experiment idea of the income of a physician in those times may be formed from alone is incapable of determining. This generalisation will become the fact mentioned by Herodotus (lib. iii., cap. 131), that the Æginetans matter of exact knowledge only when it is brought within the domain (about the year B.o. 532, Ol. 62, 1) paid Democedes from the public of mathematics. The great desideratum of the existing state of natural treasury one talent per annum for his services, that is (if we reckon, philosophy is a mathematical theory of physical forces. After the with Hussey, ‘Antient Weights and Money, &c.' the Æginetan drachma explanations that have been given of a great variety of the phenomena to be worth 18. 14d.), not quite three hundred and forty-four pounds ; of light, which is one of those forces, by the hypothesis of a highly he afterwards received from the Athenians one hundred minæ, that is elastic medium pervading space, it is not a little surprising that an (reckoning, with Hussey, the Attic drachma to be worth 9fd.), rather explanation of the correlation' of the several forces should not have more than four hundred and six pounds; and he was finally attracted been sought for in the existence of this medium, which would seem to to Samos by being offered by Polycrates a salary of two talents, that is be a vast reservoir of force sufficient to account for all observed (if the Attic standard be meant) four hundred and eighty-seven pounds dynamical effects.” Professor Challis has pursued this subject in a ten shillings. It should however be added that Valckenaer donbts the series of elaborate analytical investigations, also published in the accuracy of this statement of Herodotus with respect to the Æginetans

Philosophical Magazine' for 1859 and 1860. “The principal hypo- and Athenians (and apparently with reason), on the ground that the
thesis of the theory is, that the physical forces are all consequences of latter people, at the time of their greatest wealth, only allowed their
the motions and pressures of a uniform and highly elastic medium ambassadors two drachmä (or 18. 73d) per day, that is, somewhat less
pervading space. The variations of the pressures of the medium are than thirty pounds per annum. (Aristoph., ' Acharn.,' v. 66.) It
supposed to be proportional to variations of its density; and this sup- seems to have been not uncommon in those times (as afterwards in the
position forms the basis of a mathematical investigation of the relations
between the motions and the pressures. Further, it is assumed that Somewhat analogous to this is the use of the Arabic word hakim (from
the medium acts immediately by pressure on the ultimate atoms of hakama, 'novit' sapiens fuit ') which properly means a wise or learned man in
bodies, which are all supposed to be spheres of invariable magnitudes general, but is very frequently used in a restricted sense to signify a physician,

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later Roman empire, see ARCHIATER in BIOG. DIV.), for states to maintain physicians, who were paid at the public cost (Xenophon, Memor. Socr.,' lib. iv., cap. 2, § 5; Plato, Gorg.,' § 23; Strabo, lib. iv., p. 125; Diod. Sic., lib. xii., cap. 13); and these again had attendants, for the most part slaves, who exercised their calling among people of low condition. (Plato, 'De Leg.,' lib. iv., p. 720, ed. Steph.; Boeckh's Public Econ. of Athens,' vol. i., p. 160.)

account therefore, in the ninth year of the reign of Henry V., 1422, our universities proposed that an act of parliament should be passed ordering that "No one shall use the mystery of physic unless he hath studied it in some university, and is at least a bachelor in that science. The sheriff shall inquire if any one practises in his county contrary to this regulation; and if any one so practise, he shall forfeit 40l. and be imprisoned and any woman who shall practise physic shall incur the same penalty." (Quoted in Willcock, 'On the Laws of the Medical Profession,' part ii., p. iii.)

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In the earlier times of the Roman republic physicians were unknown (Pliny, Hist. Nat.,' lib. xxix., cap. 5, ed. Tauchn.); and for some time afterwards the exercise of the profession was in a great measure confined to persons of servile rank; for the richer families having slaves who were skilled in all sorts of trades, &c., generally possessed one or more that understood medicine and surgery. (Middleton's Essay De Medicorum apud Romanos degentium Conditione,' Cantab., 1726, 4to., and the various answers to it that appeared on its publication.) To this practice however there were many exceptions; namely, the physician who was taken prisoner with Julius Cæsar by the pirates at the island of Pharmacusa (Sueton., cap. 4), and who is called his friend by Plutarch (see Casaubon's Note on Sueton.); Archagathus, who, being the first foreign surgeon that settled at Rome, had a shop bought for him at the public expense, and was presented with the Jus Quiritium, A.U.C. 535, B.C. 219 (Cassius Hemina ap. Pliny,' Hist. Nat.,' lib. xxix., cap. 6); Artorius, who is known to have been a physician (Cal. Aurel. 'De Morb. Acut.,' lib. iii., cap. 14, p. 224), and who is called the friend of Augustus (Plutarch, Vita Bruti,' cap. 41, ed. Tauchn., where however it should be noticed that some editions read 'AvTúvios, instead of 'Apropios); Asclapo, whom Cicero calls his friend ( Epist. ad Divers.,' lib. xiii., ep. 20); Asclepiades, the friend of Crassus the orator (Cic. 'de Orat.,' lib. i., cap. 14); Eudemus, who is called by Tacitus ('Annal.,'' lib. iv., cap. 3) the friend and physician of Livia; and others. With respect to the income made by eminent physicians at the beginning of the Roman empire, we learn from Pliny ('Hist. Nat.,' lib. xxix., cap. 5) that Albutius, Arruntius, Calpetanus, Cassius, and Rubrius gained two hundred and fifty thousand sesterces per annum, that is (reckoning with Hussey the mille nummi (sestertium) to be worth, before the reign of Augustus, 8l. 178. 1d.) about two thousand two hundred and thirteen pounds ten shillings; that Quintus Stertinius made it a favour that he was content to receive from the emperor five hundred thousand sesterces per annum (or rather more than four thousand four hundred and twenty-seven pounds), as he might have made six hundred thousand sesterces (or five thousand three hundred and twelve pounds ten shil-practise physic in all its branches, among which surgery is enumelings) by his private practice; and that he and his brother, who received the same annual income from the emperor Claudius, left between them at their death, notwithstanding large sums that they had spent in beautifying the city of Naples, the sum of thirty millions of sesterces (or two hundred and sixty-five thousand six hundred and twenty-five pounds). Of the previous medical education necessary to qualify a physician for the legal practice of his profession in the early times, we know nothing; afterwards however this was under the superintendence of the Archiatri. [ARCHIATER.]

This measure had not however the desired effect; indeed there appears to be some doubt whether it ever obtained the force of an act of parliament, on account of its being referred to the privy council for confirmation. In the third year of the reign of Henry VIII., 1511, was passed an act, which is generally received as the first operative law on the subject, and which takes no notice of the supposed statute of Henry V. By this, which is especially aimed against the sorcerers, witches, and smiths, "who can no letters on the book," it is enacted that "no person within the city of London, nor within seven miles of the same shall take upon him to exercise or occupy as a physician, except he be first examined, approved, and admitted by the bishop of London, or by the dean of St. Paul's, for the time being, calling to him or them four doctors of physic; upon the pain of forfeiture, for every month that they do occupy as physicians not admitted nor examined after the tenour of this act, of 5l.," &c. &c. After making the same enactment for the different counties, the act goes on to say, "Provided always, that this act nor anything therein contained be prejudicial. to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, or either of them, or to any privileges granted to them." (Willcock, pp. 6, 7; Goodall's Hist. of the Col. of Physicians,' p. 1-3.)

Among the Arabians the medical profession appears to have been held in high esteem. Many of their chief physicians were Jews or Christians, and some apostatised to Mohammedanism: in some families the profession would seem to have been in a manner hereditary, as in that of Avenzoar (Ibn Zohir), five of whom successively belonged to it. (Reiske's 'Abulfedæ Annal. Moslem.,' tom. iv., p. 669.) The qualifications necessary for practising medicine seem to have been rather slight, till the Caliph Moctader, A.H. 319 (A.D. 931), in consequence of an ignorant practitioner's having killed one of his patients, passed a law that no one should be allowed to practise until he had been licensed to do so by the chief physician. (Casiri, 'Biblioth. Arabico-Hisp. Escur.,' tom. i., p. 438.) Some idea of the consideration in which the Arabic and Moorish physicians were held may be gained from the fact that Sancho the Fat, king of Leon, was obliged to go in person to Cordova, A.D. 956 (A.H. 345), to be cured of an illness. (Mariana,' l. viii. c. 7, tom. i., p. 318; Conde, 'Domin. des Arabes,' &c., t. i., p. 448.)

The first medical school that was established in Europe was that at Salerno (Salernitana Schola) towards the end of the 7th century; the second was probably that at Montpelier, founded about a hundred years afterwards: their course of medical education is unknown, but they doubtless excercised a most beneficial influence on the acquirements, and therefore on the personal rank and consideration of the physicians of the age. For a long time however the profession of medicine was almost entirely confined to the clergy, who indeed were the only persons in those days that possessed any share of learning. Surgery was however given up to the laity, as the clergy were prohibited from undertaking any bloody operation.

Hence arose the distinction of the three regular orders of the medical profession, namely, physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries; and it is to the first of these exclusively that the remainder of this article will be dedicated. The degree of bachelor of physic seems to have been known at Oxford soon after the Conquest; and in the 14th century we find that the degree of doctor of physic was by no means uncommon. (Wood's 'Hist. of Oxford,' vol. ii., p. 765, ed. Gutch; Chaucer's 'Doctor of Physic's Tale.') The English colleges could not of their own authority prevent any from undertaking to practise, though they had not obtained a degree in physic. On this

ARTS AND SCI. DIV. VOL. VI.

In the fourteenth year of the same reign, 1522, another act was passed, by which the examination of physicians was taken from the persons appointed for that purpose by the former statute, and reposed in the college instituted by a charter of that king. [PHYSICIANS, COLLEGE OF.] Under this the university graduates who might desire to practise in London were included, as well as the other physicians; and since that time the legislature has seldom interfered on the subject.

With respect to the present state of the profession, the first class of medical practitioners in rank and legal pre-eminence is that of the physicians. They are (by statute 32 Henry VIII.) allowed to rated. The law therefore permits them both to prescribe and compound their medicines, and to perform operations in surgery as well as to superintend them. These privileges are also reserved to them by the statutes and charters relating to the surgeons and the apothecaries. [SURGEON.] Yet custom has more decidedly distinguished the classes of the profession, and assigned to each its peculiar avocations. The practice of the physician is universally understood, as well by their college as the public, to be properly confined to the prescribing of medicines, which are to be compounded by the apothecaries; and in so far superintending the proceedings of the surgeon as to aid his operations by prescribing what is necessary to the general health of the patient, and for the purpose of counteracting any internal disease. It would be impossible to enumerate here the legal qualifications required by all the different European universities; it will therefore be sufficient to mention these recognised in the British dominions,

In the university of Oxford, for the degree of Bachelor of Medicine, it is necessary that the candidate should have completed twenty-eight terms from the day of matriculation; that he should have gone through the two examinations required for the degree of bachelor of arts; that he should have spent at least three years in the study of his profession; and that he should be examined by the Regius Professor of medicine and two other examiners of the degree of M.D. in the theory and practice of medicine, anatomy, physiology, and pathology; in materia medica, as well as chemistry and botany, so far as they illustrate the science of medicine; and in two at least of the following ancient medical writers, namely, Hippocrates, Celsus, Aretaus, and Galen.

For the degree of Doctor of Medicine, the candidate is required to have completed forty terms from the day of matriculation; and to recite publicly in the schools a dissertation upon some subject, to be approved by the Regius Professor, to whom a copy of it is afterwards to be presented.

At Cambridge a student, before he can proceed to the degree of Bachelor of Medicine, must have entered on his sixth year, have resided nine terms, and have passed the previous examination: the necessary certificates, &c. are much the same as those required at Oxford. A Doctor of Medicine must be of five years' standing from the degree of M.B.

Since the university of London has been chartered, in 1837, the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine, among others, have been conferred there. The following are the regulations for these degrees.

For the degree of Bachelor of Medicine.-Candidates to have been engaged for four years in professional study at one or more of the recognised institutions, one year at least to be spent at a recognised institution or school in the United Kingdom. They have also to pass

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two examinations, at the first of which they must produce certificates registration independent of the universities and colleges, to secure to of having completed their nineteenth year; of having taken a degree in the public the means of distinguishing between qualified and nonarts in this university, or in a recognised university, or of having qualified practitioners. One of the distinguishing features of this act passed the matriculation examination; of having been student for two is the constituting a medical council, entitled, “ the General Council of years at one or more recognised medical institutions, subsequently to Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom.” This having taken a degree in arts; of having attended a course of lectures council consists of one person chosen from time to time by each of the on descriptive and surgical anatomy, general anatomy and physiology, following bodies :comparative anatomy, pathological anatomy, chemistry, botany, materia The Royal College of Physicians. medica and pharmacy, general pathology, general therapeutics, forensic The Royal College of Surgeons of England. medicine, hygiene, midwifery, surgery, medicine ; of having dissected The Apothecaries Society of London. during nine months; of having attended a course of practical che- The University of Oxford. mistry; and of having attended practical pharmacy. Candidates to The University of Cambridge. be examined in anatomy, physiology, chemistry, structural and physi- The University of Durham. ological botany, materia medica, and pharmacy.

The University of London. To the second examination no candidate can be admitted until two The College of Physicians of Edinburgh, years after passing the first. He must produce certificates of having The College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. passed his first examination; of having subsequently attended a course The Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow. of lectures on each of two out of the four subjects mentioned above; One person chosen from time to time by the University of Edinburgh of having subsequently to his first examination dissected for six months; and the two Universities of Aberdeen collectively.* of having conducted at least six labours; of having attended the surgical One person by the University of Glasgow and the University of practice of a recognised hospital or hospitals during twelve months, St. Andrews collectively. and lectures on clinical surgery; of having attended the medical The King and Queen's College of Physicians, Ireland. practice of a recognised hospital or hospitals during other twelve The Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland. months, and lectures on clinical medicine; of having subsequently The Apothecaries Hall of Ireland. attended to practical medicine in a recognised hospital, infirmary, or The University of Dublin. dispensary, during six months. The candidate must also produce a The Queen's University in Ireland. certificate of moral character from a teacher in the last school at which Six persons nominated by her Majesty by the advice of her privy he has studied. Candidates to be examined in physiology (including council

, four of whom are appointed for England, one for Scotland, and comparative anatomy), general pathology, general therapeutics, hygiene, one for Ireland, and of a president to be elected by the General surgery, medicine, midwifery, and forensic medicine.

Council. The first president chosen under this act was Sir Benjamin 1or the degree of M.D.---Candidates to produce certificates : 1, of Brodie, Bart. having taken the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in this university, or The General Council appoints a registrar, who acts as secretary and a degree in medicine or surgery at a university recognised by this uni: treasurer. versity ; 2, of having subsequently attended (A) to clinical or practical Branch councils are also appointed for Scotland and Ireland, who medicine during two years in a recognised hospital or medical institu- have each a registrar, and other officers and clerks. tion; (B) or to clinical or practical medicine during one year in a The act then provides for the registration of every person holding recognised hospital or medical institution, and of having been engaged one or more qualifications from the following bodies. The Colleges of during three years in the practice of his profession; (C) or if he have Physicians of London, Edinburgh, and Ireland. The Colleges of Surgeons taken the degree of B.M. in this university, of having been engaged of England, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Ireland, the Apothecaries Society during five years in the practice of his profession ; 3, of moral cha- of London, and the Apothecaries Hall of Dublin, graduates in medicine racter, signed by two persons of respectability.

of any university in the United Kingdom, and graduates of any Candidates who have not taken a degree in arts, or passed the foreign or colonial university or college practising as a physician matriculation examination in this university, will be required to trans- previous to the first day of October, 1858. The fee charged for late a portion of Celsus ' De Re Medica.'

registration under this act is two pounds. The register containing

the names and qualifications of all registered practitioners is published REGULATIONS RELATING TO PRACTITIONERS IN MEDICINE OR SURGERY yearly. DESIROUS OF OBTAINING DEGREES IN MEDICINE.

The Council is given power to require that every university,

corporation, or college, whose graduates, members or licenciates are Degree of Bachelor of Medicine. Candidates shall be admitted to entitled to register, shall cause them to go through such a course of the two examinations for the degree of Bachelor of Medicine on pro- education and examination as shall secure to persons obtaining such ducing certificates: 1, of having been admitted, prior to the year 1840, qualification the requisite knowledge and skill for the efficient practice members of one of the legally constituted bodies in the United King- of their profession. dom for licensing practitioners in medicine or surgery ; 2, of having Every person registered under this act is entitled according to his received a part of their education at a recognised institution or school, qualification or qualifications, to practise medicine or surgery, or as required by the charter of the university; 3, of moral character, medicine and surgery as the case may be, in any part of her Majesty's signed by two persons of respectability.

dominions, and to demand and recover in any court of law with full Degree of Doctor of Medicine.- Candidates who have been engaged cost of suit, reasonable charges for professional aid, advice, and visits, during five years in the practice of their profession, shall be admitted and the cost of any medicines or other medical or surgical appliances to the examination for this degree on producing certificates : 1, of rendered and supplied by him to his patient. A proviso is made, having been engaged during five years in the practice of their profes- that it shall be lawful for any college of physicians to pass a bye law sion ; 2, of having taken the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in this to the effect that no one of their fellows or members shall be entitled university.

to sue in manner aforesaid in any court of law, and thereupon such bye In Scotland the degree of doctor of medicine is conferred by the law may be pleaded in bar to any action for the purposes aforesaid universities in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, from commenced by any fellow or member of such college. which last named university a diploma can still be obtained without A clause in this act defines the terms "legally qualified ” and “duly residence; the regulations at the others contain nothing particularly qualified” medical practitioner, as meaning a person registered under worthy of notice.

this act. In Ireland, the King and Queen's College of Physicians exercise Another important provision of this act is in reference to the much the same jurisdiction as the English college. The degrees of publication of a common Pharmacopeia for the three kingrioms. Bachelor and Doctor of Medicine conferred by Trinity College, Dublin, Hitherto the Colleges of Physicians of London, Dublin and Edinburgh, rank with the same degrees respectively from Oxford and Cambridge, have published from time to time their own Pharmacopocias, but the and are never given without previous study in arts, which occupies act provides that the General Council shall cause to be published four years. For the degree of M.D. five years must have elapsed since under their direction a book, containing a list of medicines and comthe degree of M.B. was conferred; the candidate is then to undergo a pounds, and the manner of preparing them, together with the true second examination, and write and publish a Latin thesis on some weight and measures by which they are to be prepared and mixed, medical subject.

and containing such other matter and things relating thereto, as the By the English law the physician is exempted from serying on General Council shall think fit, to be called the 'British Pharmacopæia,' juries, from serving various offices, and from bearing arms. He is and the General Council shall cause to be altered, amended and (according to Willcock, p. 105) responsible for want of skill or attention, republished, such Pharmacopoia as often as they shall deem it and is liable to make compensation in pecuniary damages (as far as necessary. such can be deemed a compensation) to any of his patients who may The passing of this act has caused a very considerable movement in have suffered injury by any gross want of professional knowledge on the medical profession. The large body of men who practise in

England as general practitioners are members of the College of In 1858, a new medical act obtained the assent of the legislature, Surgeons, and practise as and call themselves surgeons. They practise entitled, an act to regulate the qualifications of practitioners in however not only surgery but medicine, and they claim as practitioners medicine and surgery.” The object of this act was to consolidate the of medicine the style and title of physicians. Up to the time of the various medical corporations of the United Kingdom, to secure reciprocity of practice throughout the British dominions, and by legal • The two universities of Aberdeen have since been consolidated.

his part.

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PHYSICIANS, ROYAL COLLEGE OF.

PHYSICIANS, ROYAL COLLEGE OF, passing of the medical act the College of Physicians of London had of these charters seems to have been granted with the view to the repudiated the granting their diploma to those who sent out their enactment of a bill to the same effect, as the kings respectively medicines or practised surgery. But on the passing of this act, those pledged themselves to give it the royal assent. No statute has been who were registered as physicians by the diplomas of the Colleges of at any time passed in pursuance of this purpose; and it is very Physicians of Edinburgh or Dublin, were entitled to practise in all doubtful how far and in what manner the charters have been parts of the United Kingdom. This, accompanied with the lowering accepted by the college, though they have certainly been several of the fee for admission by the College of Physicians of Edinburgh, times acted upon. Willcock, p. 34.) led a large number of general practitioners to seek admission to that The licentiates of the college who may practise within the precincts College. Shortly after the passing of the act, the College of Physi- of London and seven miles round it were (until 1836) of three orders, cians in London instituted a year of grace, in which they admitted to namely, fellows, candidates, and mere licentiates. The last of these the membership of the College also at a reduced fee, the graduates of classes, generally denominated licentiates, are those who have only a universities and others practising medicine, who did not send out their licence to practise physic within the precincts above described. The medicines. This has led greatly to the increase of the number of second class was abolished in 1836. The first class are those who have members of the medical profession, who practise under the style and received that licence, but whose licence also shows that they are title of physician.

admitted to the order of fellows. This licence has often been called Some idea of the amount of fees paid to physicians in the middle a diploma, but as it confers no degrees, the word is not properly ages may be gained by what we are told of Petrus de Abano, one of applied, according to its more strict signification. the most eminent physicians of the 13th century. For visiting a The order of licentiates was created by the following clause of the patient out of his own city he charged one hundred and fifty francs charter of Henry VIII. :-“We have granted also to the same president (or about six pounds) per day; and that when sent for by Pope and college or community, and their successors, that no one within the Honorius IV., he demanded four bundred ducats per day, or about said city or within seven miles around may practise in the said faculty seventy pounds. (Bayle’s ‘ Dict.,' art • Apone.') It should, however, until admitted to this by the said president and community, or their be noticed that these charges were considered very enormous.

successors for the time being, by the letters of the same president and PHYSICIANS, ROYAL COLLEGE OF, the principal chartered college, sealed with their common seal, under the penalty of one medical body in England, was founded through the instrumentality of hundred shillings for every month for which, unadmitted, he may have Linacre, who obtained, by his interest with Cardinal Wolsey, letters practised in the same faculty, half to be applied for us and our heirs, patent from Henry VIII., dated in the year 1518. This charter and half for the same president and college.” Now the common law granted to John Chambre, Thomas Linacre, Ferdinand de Victoria, having given every man a right to practise in any profession or business Nicholas Halsewell, John Francis, and Robert Yaxley, that they and in which he is competent, the effect of 14 Henry VIII. must be taken all men of the same faculty of and in the city of London, should be in to be this, namely, it has left to every man his common law right of fact and name one body and perpetual community or college; and practising in the profession of physic, as in any other profession, if that the same community or college might yearly and for ever elect competent, and has appointed the president and college to be judges of and make some prudent man of that community expert in the faculty this competency. (Willcock, p. 38.) The mode of examination is of medicine, president of the same college or community, to supervise, wholly in the discretion of the college, which has confided the immeobserve, and govern for that year the said college or community, and diate direction of it to the censors. It has, however, also appointed all men of the same faculty, and their affairs, and also that the that the doors of the censors' chamber shall be open to all fellows president and college of the same community might elect four every who may think proper to be present, and that they may take part in year, who should have the supervision and scrutiny, &c., of all phy- the examination, should they think fit; and that the fellows may have sicians within the precinct of London. The statute 14 Henry VII. an opportunity of availing themselves of this right, it is appointed that confirmed this charter, and further ordained that the six persons above all examinations shall take place at a court held at certain regular named, choosing to themselves two more of the said commonalty, intervals. (Ibid., p. 41.) should from henceforth be called and cleaped elects; and that the The order of Candidates was abolished in 1836, as above stated, but same elects should yearly choose one of them to be president of the there were reserved to students then in the universities of Oxford and said commonalty; and then provided for the election of others to Cambridge their inchoate rights. supply the rooms and places of such elects as should in future be void The order of Fellows comprises those who are admitted into the by death or otherwise, which was to be made by the survivors of the fellowship, community, commonalty, or society of the college. The same elects. The statute 32 Henry VIII. provides that from thence-charter incorporated all physicians then legally practising in London, forth the President, Commons, and Fellows might yearly, at such time so that each of them who thought proper to accept it became ipso facto as they should think fit, elect and choose four persons of the said a member or fellow; but as all future practitioners, within the preCommons and Fellows, of the best learned, wisest, and most discreet, cincts of and seven miles round that city, were required to obtain the such as they should think convenient, and have experience in the licence of the college, there soon arose two orders of the profession. faculty of physic, to search and examine apothecaries' wares, &c. This The fellows attempted by various bye-laws to limit their own number, last appointment is independent of the constitution of the body, the but seem to have considered the licentiates as members of the college, persons so appointed being officers for a special purpose ; and it has or the commons, and themselves as forming a select body for the purbeen usual to select for this office the same four persons in whom the pose of government. To this state of the society, the statute 32 , government of the physicians is reposed by the charter and statute of Henry VIII. seems to allude in speaking of the “ commons and the 14th of that king.

fellows." The charter of Charles II, expressly notices these orders as The constituted officers then of this corporation are the eight elects, forming the body of the society, inasmuch as it directed that new of whom one is to be president, and four governors, who have generally fellows should be elected from among the commons of the society. borne the name of censors. There is nothing to be gathered from the Ibid., p. 44.) charter or statutes in any way tending to exclude any of the elects, Up to a very recent period the College confined its election of Fellows except the president, from the office of censor; and as no duties are to graduates of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. This was assigned to the elects, except those of filling up their own number, done under the direction of certain bye-laws, which it appeared the electing one of themselves to be president, and granting testimonials College had not by its charters the power to enforce. These bye-laws to country practitioners, they may be rather regarded as candidates have been now modified, and graduates of all British and other unifor the office of president than as active officers of the corporation. versities, being licentiates of the College, are open to election for the The college is bound to choose four censors, for the purpose of dis- fellowship. charging the duties confided in it, which are to be executed by these There is a third class of members of the College, called extraofficers. It is also incumbent on the elects to preserve their number, licentiates, or licentiates extra urbem. They are examined by the 80 that there may at no time be less than five, including the pre-president and elects of the College, by virtue of an Act of Parliament sident, as they would not, after a further reduction, be capable either passed previously to the granting of the present charter of the College. of electing a president or choosing others to fill the vacancies in their | By this Act, power was given to the president and elects to examine own body. (Willcock. On the Laws of the Medical Profession,' p. 32.) persons desiring to practise physic throughout England and Wales. It is evident that the charter so far incorporated all persons of the After the College of Physicians obtained their charter this Act fell same faculty, of and near London, that every person on the 23rd of into desuetude; but the president and elects having made known their September, in the 10th year of the reign of Henry VIII., falling within power at the beginning of the present century, the list of extrathat description, was entitled to be admitted into the association. licentiates gradually increased, till in 1851 they nearly equalled in Such of them as had availed themselves of this privilege, and number the licentiates of the College. By the charter of the College, others subsequently admitted, are the persons described by statute they were held to have no right to practice their profession within 32 Henry VIII., as“ Commons and Fellows” (quoted in Willcock, seven miles of London; and in case any of the extra-licentiates p. 13). But as to the persons who should afterwards enjoy that came to reside within that distance of London, they were cited to distinction, the original charter and all subsequent statutes are silent. appear and be examined before the censors for their licence to James I. and Charles II. granted charters to this body. The first practise in London. This was not a mere formal examination, as is silent as to the mode of continuing it ; but the charter of instances have been known in which the censors have rejected Charles, after limiting the number of fellows to forty, directed that candidates who had been admitted to practise by the elects The when a vacancy should occur in that number, the remainder should revival of the class of extra-licentiates by the elects, and the jealousy elect one of the most learned and able persons skilled and experienced of the censors of this body of physicians, was one of the causes in physic, then of the commonalty of members of the college. Each which led to the passing of the Medical Act of 1858, by which the

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