From the Sarus the army marched 5 parasangs to the Pyramus, which was crossed where it was 600 Greek feet wide; and the march from the Pyramus to Issus was 15 parasangs. Accordingly, the whole distance marched from Tarsus to Issus was 30 parasangs. The direct distance from Tarsus to the head of the gulf is about 56 geographical miles; and these two points are very nearly in the same latitude. The modern road from Tarsus, through Adana on the Sarus, and Mopsuestia on the Pyramus, to the head of the gulf, has a general direction from W. to E. The length of Cyrus's march, from Tarsus to the Sarus, exceeds the direct distance on the map very much, if we reckon the parasang at 3 geographical miles; for 10 parasangs are 30 geographical miles, and the direct distance to Adana is not more than 16 miles. Mr. Ainsworth informs us that the Sarus is not fordable at Adana; and Cyrus probably crossed at some other place. The march from the Sarus to the Pyramus was 5 parasangs, or 15 geographical miles; and this appears to be very nearly the direct distance from Adana to Mopsuestia (Misis). But Cyrus may have crossed some distance below Mopsuestia, without lengthening his march from the Sarus to the Pyramus; and he may have done this even if he had to go lower down the Sarus than Adana to find a ford. If he did not go higher up the Pyramus to seek a ford, for the reasons which Mr. Ainsworth mentions, he must have crossed lower down than Mopsuestia. The distance from the point where the supposed old bed begins to turn to the south, to the NE. end of the gulf of Issus, is 40 geographical miles; and thus the distance of 15 parasangs from the passage of the Pyramus to Issus, is more easily reconciled with the real distance than the measurement from Tarsus to the Sarus.

The places not absolutely determined on or near the gulf of Issus, are: Myriandrus, Nicopolis, Epiphaneia [EPIPHANEIA], Arae Alexandri, and Issus, though we know that Issus, must have been at the head of the gulf and on it. The following extract from Colonel Chesney contains the latest information on these sites:-"About 7 miles south-eastward from the borders of Syria are the remains of a con. siderable city, probably those of Issus or Nicopolis, with the ruins of a temple, a part of the Acropolis, an extensive aqueduct, generally with a double row of arches, running ESE. and WNW. These, in addition to the walls of the city itself, are entirely built of lava, and still exist in considerable perfection. Nearly 14 miles southward from thence, the Delí Chaï quits the foot of the Amanus in two branches, which, after traversing the Issic plain, unite at the foot of the mountain just previously to entering the

sea.

The principal of these branches makes a deep curve towards the NE., so that a body of troops occupying one side might see behind and outflank those posted on the opposite side, in which, as well as in other respects, the stream appears to answer to the Pinarus of Alexander's historians. A little southward of this river are the castle, khán, bázár, baths, and other ruins of Báyás, once Baiae, with the three villages of Kuretur in the neighbourhood, situated in the midst of groves of orange and palm trees. Again, 5 miles southward, is the pass, above noticed, of Súkúl-tútán, and at nearly the same distance onward, the fine bay and anchorage of Iskenderún, with an open but convenient landing-place on a bold beach; but, in consequence of the accumulation of the sand by which the mouths of the streams

descending from this part of the Amanus are choked, a pestilential swamp extends from the very edge of the sea almost to the foot of the mountain. In the marsh towards the latter are some trifling ruins, which may possibly be the site of ancient Myriandrus; and within a mile of the shore are the remains of a castle and bridge constructed by Godfrey of Bouillon." (Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, vol. i. p. 408.)

There is no direct proof here that these remains are those of Issus. The aqueduct probably belongs to the Roman period. It seems most likely that the remains are those of Nicopolis, and that Issus on the coast has disappeared. Colonel Chesney's description of the bend of one of the branches of the Deli Tschai corresponds to Arrian's (ii. 2. § 10), who says, "Darius placed at the foot of the mountain, which was on the Persian left and opposite to Alexander's right, about 20,000 men; and some of them were on the rear of Alexander's army. For the mountain where they were posted in one place opened to some depth, and so a part became of the form of a bay on the sea. Darius then, by advancing further to the bend, brought the men who were posted at the foot of the mountain, in the rear of the right wing of Alexander."

There still seems some doubt about the site of Myriandrus, which Mr. Ainsworth (Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand, &c. p. 60) places about half way between Scanderoon and Rhosus (Arsus); and he has the authority of Strabo, in his enumeration of the places on this coast, and that of Ptolemy, who places Myriandrus 15' south of Alexandria ad Issum. As to Arsus, he observes, -"there are many ruins, and especially a long aqueduct leading from the foot of the mountains." [G. L.] ISTAEVONES. [GERMANIA and HILLEVI

I'STHMIA, a small district in Thessaly. [ZELASIUM.]

ISTHMUS. [CORINTHUS, p. 682, seq.]
ISTO'NE. [CORCYRA.]

ISTO'NIUM. [CELTIBERIA.]

I'STRIA (Iorpía) or HI'STRIA, was the name given by the Greeks and Romans to the country which still bears the same appellation, and forms a peninsula of somewhat triangular form near the head of the Adriatic sea, running out from the coast of Liburnia, between Tergeste (Trieste) and the Sinus Flanaticus, or Gulf of Quarnero. It is about 50 G. miles in length, and 35 in breadth, while the isthmus or strip of land between the two gulfs of Trieste and Quarnero, by which it is united to the mainland, is about 27 G. miles across. The name is derived both by Greek and Latin authors from the fabulous notion entertained at a very early period that one branch or arm of the Danube (the Ister of the Greeks) flowed into the Adriatic sea near its head. (Strab. i. p. 57; Plin. iii. 18. s. 22.) The deep inlets and narrow channels with which the coasts of the Adriatic are intersected for a considerable distance below the peninsula of Istria may have contributed to favour this notion so long as those coasts were imperfectly known; and hence we cannot wonder at Scylax speaking of a river named Istrus (which he identifies with the Danube) as flowing through the land of the Istrians (Scyl. p. 6. § 20); but it seems incredible that an author like Mela, writing in the days of Augustus, should not only speak of a river Ister as flowing into this part of the

lemy also mentions three towns, which he places in the interior of the country, and names Pucinum, Piquentum (ПKOVEVTOV), and Alvum or Alvon ('Aλovov). Of these, Piquentum may be probably identified with Pinguente, a considerable place in the heart of the mountain district of the interior; and Alvon with Albona (called Alvona in the Tabula), which is, however, E. of the Arsa, and therefore not strictly within the Roman province of Istria. In like manner the Pucinum of Ptolemy is evidently the same place with the "castellum, nobile vino, Pucinum" of Pliny (vii. 18. s. 22), which the latter places in the territory of the Carni, between the Timavus and Tergeste, and was perhaps the same with the modern Duino. Ningum, a place mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary (p. 271) between Tergeste and Parentium, cannot be determined with any certainty. The Tabula also gives two names in the NW. part of the peninsula, Quaeri and Silvo (Silvum), both of which are wholly unknown. The same authority marks three small islands off the coast of Istria, to which it gives the names of Sepomana (?), Orsaria, and Pullaria: the last is mentioned also by Pliny (iii. 26. s. 30), and is probably the rocky island, or rather group of islets, off the harbour of Pola, now known as Li Brioni. The other two cannot be identified, any more than the Cissa of Pliny (l. c.): the Absyrtides of the same author are the larger islands in the Golfo di Quarnero, which belong rather to Liburnia than to Istria. [ABSYRTIDES.]

The extreme southern promontory of Istria, now called Punta di Promontore, seems to have been known in ancient times as the PROMONTORIUM POLATICUM (akрwтńρiov Пoλaтikóv, Steph. B. s. v. Пóλa). Immediately adjoining it is a deep bay or harbour, now known as the Golfo di Medolino, which must be the Portus Planaticus (probably a corruption of Flanaticus) of the Tabula.

The Geographer of Ravenna, writing in the seventh century, but from earlier authorities, mentions the names of many towns in Istria unnoticed by earlier geographers, but which may probably have grown up under the Roman empire. Among these are Humago, still called Umago, Neapolis (Città Nuova), Ruvignio (Rovigno), and Piranon (Pirano), all of them situated on the W. coast, with good ports, and which would naturally become places of some trade during the flourishing period of Istria above alluded to. (Anon. Ravenn. iv. 30, 31.) [E. H. B.] ISTRIANORUM PORTUS. [ISIACORUM

PORTUS.]

ISTRIA'NUS ('Ioтpiavós, Ptol. iii. 6. § 3), a river of the Tauric Chersonese, which has been identified with the Küük Tep. (Forbiger, vol. iii. pp. 1117, 1121.) [E. B. J.] ISTRO'POLIS, ISTRIO'POLIS, HISTRIO'POLIS (Ιστρόπολις, Ιστρία πόλις, or simply Ίστρος: Istere), a town of Lower Moesia, at the southern extremity of lake Halmyris, on the coast of the Euxine. It was a colony of Miletus, and, at least in Strabo's time, a small town. (Strab. vii. p. 319; Plin. iv. 18. 24; Mela, ii. 2; Eutrop. vi. 8; Herod. ii. 33: Arrian, Perip. Eux. p. 24; Geog. Rav. iv. 6; Lycoph. 74; Ptol. iii. 10. § 8; Scymn. Fragm. 22; Steph. B. s. v.; Amm. Marc. xxii. 8; Hierocl. p. 637.) But the frequent mention of the place shows that it must have been a commercial town of some importance; of its history, however, nothing is known. Some modern writers have identified it with Kiustenza or Kostendsje, the ancient Constantiana,

which, however, was in all probability situated to the south of Istropolis. [L. S.]

ISTRUS (Iσтpos), a Cretan town which Artemidorus also called ISTRONA. (Steph. B. s. v.) The latter form of the name is found in an inscription (ap. Chishull, Antiq. Asiat. p. 110). The site is placed near Minoa: "Among the ruined edifices and columns of this ancient city are two immense marble blocks, half buried in the earth, and measuring 54 by 15 feet." (Cornelius, Creta Sacra, vol. i. p. 11; ap. Mus. Class. Antiq. vol. ii. p. 273; comp. Höck, | Kreta, vol. i. pp. 17, 421.) [E. B. J.]

ISTURGI (Andujar la Vieja), a city of Hispania Baetica, in the neighbourhood of ILLITURGIS. (Inser. ap. Florez, Esp. S. vol. vii. p. 137.) The IPASTURGI TRIUMPHALE of Pliny (iii. 1. s. 3) is probably the same place. (Ukert, vol. ii. pt. 1. pp. 380, 381.) [P.S.]

ISUBRIGANTUM. [ISURIUM.]

ISU'RIUM, in Britain, first mentioned by Ptolemy (ii. 3. § 16) as a town of the Brigantes. It then occurs in two of the Itineraries, the 1st and 2nd. In each, it lies between Cataractonium and Eboracum (Catterick Bridge and York). Isubrigantum, in the 5th Itinerary, does the same.

In the time of the Saxons Isurium had already taken the name of Eald-burg (Old Town), out of which has come the present name Aldborough, near Boroughbridge, with which it is undoubtedly identified.

Roman remains, both within and without the walls, are abundant and considerable at Aldborough; the Stodhart (or Studforth), the Red Hill, and the Borough Hill, being the chief localities. Tesselated pavements, the foundations of large and spacious buildings, ornaments, implements, Samian ware, and coins with the names of nearly all the emperors from Vespasian to Constantine, have given to Isurium an importance equal to that of York, Cirencester, and other towns of Roman importance. [R. G. L.]

ISUS (Ioos), a spot in Boeotia, near Anthedon, with vestiges of a city, which some commentators identified with the Homeric Nisa. (Strab. ix. p. 405; Hom. Il. ii. 508.) There was apparently also a town Isus in Megaris; but the passage in Strabo in which the name occurs is corrupt. (Strab. l. c.)

ITA'LIA (Iraλía), was the name given in ancient as well as in modern times to the country still called Italy; and was applied, from the time of Augustus, both by Greek and Latin writers, in almost exactly the same sense as at the present day. It was, however, at first merely a geographical term; the countries comprised under the name, though strongly defined by natural limits, and common natural features, being from the earliest ages peopled by different races, which were never politically united, till they all fell under the Roman yoke, and were gradually blended, by the pervading influence of Roman institutions and the Latin language, into one common nationality.

us, in B. C. 43, distinctly uses the phrase of quitting Italy, when he crosses the Alps. (Cic. ad Fam. xi. 20.) So also both Caesar and Cicero, in his Philippics, repeatedly use the name of Italy in the wider and more general sense, though the necessity of distinguishing the province of Cisalpine Gaul, leads the latter frequently to observe the official distinction. (Caes. B. G. v. 1, vi. 44, vii. 1; Cic. Phil. iv. 4, v. 12.) But, indeed, had not this use of the name been already common, before it came to be officially adopted, that circumstance alone would scarcely have rendered it so familiar as we find it in the Latin writers of the Augustan age. Virgil, for instance, in celebrating the praises of Italy, never thought of excluding from that appellation the plains of Cisalpine Gaul, or the lakes at the foot of the Alps. From the time, indeed, when the rights of Roman citizens were extended to all the Cisalpine Gauls, no real distinction any longer subsisted between the different parts of Italy; but Cisalpine Gaul still formed a separate province under D. Brutus in B. c. 43 (Cic. Phil. iii. 4, 5, iv. 4, v. 9, &c.), and it is probable, that the union of that province with Italy took place in the following year. Dion Cassius speaks of it, in B.C. 41, as an already established arrangement. (Dion Cass. xlviii. 12; Savigny, Verm. Schr. iii. p. 318.)

From the time of Augustus onwards, the name of Italia continued to be applied in the same sense throughout the period of the Roman empire, though with some slight modifications of its frontiers on the side of the Alps; but during the last ages of the Western empire, a singular change took place, by which the name of Italia came to be specially applied (in official language at least) to the northern part of what we now call Italy, comprising the five provinces of Aemilia, Flaminia, Liguria, Venetia, and Istria, together with the Cottian and Rhaetian Alps, and thus excluding nearly the whole of what had been included under the name in the days of Cicero. This usage probably arose from the division of the whole of Italy for administrative purposes into two great districts, the one of which was placed under an officer called the "Vicarius Urbis Romae," while the other, or northern portion, was subject to the "Vicarius Italiae." (Not. Dig. ii. 18; Gothofr. ad Cod. Theod. xi. 1, leg. 6; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 21.) The practice was confirmed for a time by the circumstance that this part of Italy became the seat of the Lombard monarchy, which assumed the title of the kingdom of Italy (“Regnum Italiae "); but the ancient signification still prevailed, and the name of Italy was applied throughout the middle ages, as it still is at the present day, within the boundaries established by Augustus.

The other names applied by ancient writers, especially by the Latin and later Greek poets, to the Italian peninsula, may be very briefly disposed of. Dionysius tells us that in very remote ages Italy was called by the Greeks Hesperia, or Ausonia, and by the natives Saturnia. (Dionys. i. 35.) Of these three names, HESPERIA ('Eonepía), or "the Land of the West," was evidently a mere vague appellation, employed in the infancy of geographical discovery, and which was sometimes limited to Italy, sometimes used in a much wider sense as comprising the whole West of Europe, including Spain. [His PANIA.] But there is no evidence of its having been employed in the more limited sense, at a very early period. The name is not found at all in Homer or Hesiod; but, according to the Iliac Table, Stesichorus represented Aeneas as departing from

Troy for Hesperia, where in all probability Italy is meant; though it is very uncertain whether the poet conducted Aeneas to Latium. (Schwegler, Röm. Gesch. vol. i. p. 298.) But even in the days of Stesichorus the appellation was probably one confined to the poets and logographers. At a later period we can trace it as used by the Alexandrian poets, from whom in all probability it passed to the Romans, and was adopted, as we know, by Ennius, an well as by Virgil and the writers of the Augustan age. (Agathyllus, ap. Dionys. i. 49; Apollon. Rhod. iii. 311; Ennius, Ann. Fr. p. 12; Virg. Aen. i. 530, iii. 185, &c.)

The name of AUSONIA, on the contrary, was one derived originally from one of the races which inhabited the Italian peninsula, the Aurunci of the Romans, who were known to the Greeks as the Ausones. These Ausonians were a tribe of Opican or Oscan race, and it is probable that the name of Ausonia was at first applied much as that of Opicia or Opica was by Thucydides and other writers of the fifth century B. C. But, as applied to the whole peninsula of Italy, the name is, so far as we know, purely poetical; nor can it be traced farther back than the Alexandrian writers Lycophron and Apollonius Rhodius, who employed it familiarly (as did the Latin poets in imitation of them) as a poetical equivalent for Italy. [AUSONES.]

As for the name of SATURNIA, though it is found in a pretended Greek oracle cited by Dionysius (ZaTopvíav alav, Dionys. i. 19), it may well be doubted whether it was ever an ancient appellation at all. Its obvious derivation from the name of the Latin god Saturnus proves it to have been of native Italian, and not of Greek, invention, and probably this was the only authority that Dionysius had for saying it was the native name of Italy. But all the traditions of the Roman mythology connect Saturnus so closely with Latium, that it seems almost certain the name of Saturnia (if it was ever more than a poetical fabrication) originally belonged to Latium only, and was thence gradually extended by the Romans to the rest of Italy. Ennius seems to have used the phrase of "Saturnia terra" only in reference to Latium; while Virgil applies it to the whole of Italy. (Ennius, ap. Varr. L. L. v. 42; Virg. Georg. ii. 173.) It is never used in either sense by Latin prose writers, though several authors state, as Dionysius does, that it was the ancient name of Italy. (Festus, v. Saturnia, p. 322; Justin. xliii. 1.) II. BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

There are few countries of which the boundaries are more clearly marked out by nature than those of Italy. It is well described by one of its modern poets as the land

"Ch' Apennin parte e 'l mar circonda e l'Alpe;" and this single line at once enumerates all the principal physical features that impart to the country its peculiar physiognomy. Italy consists of a great peninsula, projecting in a SE. direction into the Mediterranean sea, and bounded on the W. by the portions of that sea commonly known as the Tyrrhenian and Sicilian seas, but comprised by the Romans under the name of Mare Inferum, or the Lower Sea; on the E. by the Adriatic, or the Upper Sea (Mare Superum), as it was commonly termed by the Romans; while to the N. it spreads out into a broad expanse, forming, as it were, the base or root by which it adheres to the continent of Europe, and