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CARPINI, JOHANNES DE PLANO.

CARRARA, DA.

94

conquered by them. Pope Innocent had enjoined them to be diligent and accurate in their observatious, and faithful in reporting what they saw and heard of these strauge people who had made all Europe tremble. The friars acted up to these instructions, and, allowance being made for the state of geography and other sciences, and for the condition and superstitions of the time, the account which Carpiai or his friends gave to the world was an admirable little book of travels, the accuracy of which has been confirmed by John Bell of Anter mony [BELL, JOHN], and other and later travellers through the vast regions which intervene between European Russia and China. Carpini was the first to uproot a set of monstrous fables, and to give a true and striking picture of the peculiar civilisation of the Tartars. But at the same time he revealed their number, warlike strength, and close political union; and warned the disunited and distracted kingdoms of Christendom that if these hordes moved westward they would be found irresistible, unless a league of Christian princes were previously formed for the single purpose of opposing them. The chapter entitled 'How the Tartars are to be resisted,' is full of good

seuse.

It appears that Friar John returned to Italy, and that there, with some assistants, he published his plain unvarnished account of his travels in a 'Libellus,' or small book, in Latin. Of this book or manu. script (of which no doubt there were once many copies) we have never been able to obtain a sight. It seems to be known solely through the 'Speculum Historiale' of Vincentius Belvacensis, where it is inserted at full length, together with some information about their journey, which the author or editor, Vincentius, says he received from Simon de St. Quintin, one of the four friars who had gone by the south of the Caspian, and whose information was very meagre compared with that of Carpini. From the 'Speculum Historiale' Ramusio transferred all this matter, together with an Italian translation to follow the Latin text, into the second volume of his 'Raccolta di Navigazioni e Viaggi,' which was printed by Giunti at Venice, in the year 1556. From this admirable work of Ramusio, our own good compiler, Richard Hakluyt, copied the matter into the first volume of his Navigations and Discoveries,' which was published in London towards the close of Queen Elizabeth's reign, in the year 1599. Hakluyt, who of course only transfers the Latin text, gives a good sterling translation of his own; but he omits several passages which are given by Ramusio. From Ramusio or from Hakluyt all modern aud indeed all existing accounts of Carpini and Friar Benedict have been drawn. Bergeron gave an abridgment of the matter in his Voyages faits principalement en Asie dans les 12, 13, 14e et 15e siè les, par Benjamin de Tudele, Carpin, Rubruquis, &c.,' la Haye, 1729-55. A somewhat modernised translation of the Latin text of Hakluyt is given in R. Kerr's History and Collections of Voyages and Travels,' Edinburgh, 1824.

intention of these people might be assuredly known and made manifest to Christendom, lest suddenly invading us, they should find us unprepared, and so make increible slaughter of the Chri-tian people." In Poland and Ru-sia, and wherever the widely-spread Slavonian language was spoken, Friar Benedict the Pole served the Italian as interpreter. The two monks ran great danger of being murdered by the people of Lithuania, who appear to have been at this time many degrees less civilised than the Mongols. In Russia they were upon the whole hospitably and kiudly entertained. As the Russians adhered to the Greek or Eastern church, Carpini in a public meeting exhorted the grand duke and his bishops to abandon their heresy, and boldly read to them the letters of Pope Innocent, wherein they were admonished to return into the unity of the Roman Catholic church. Although our Franciscan effected no conversion, he raised no animosity by this boldness. He and his companion Benedict received good advice as to the best means of dealing with the Tartars, and were sent forward to Kiow, then the chief city of Russia, and not very far from the uncertain moveable frontier of the Mongols. At Kiow they hired an interpreter; but they afterwards found reason to lament that this man was unequal to the duties he had undertaken to perform. The Mongols at this time occupied all the country between China, Siberia, and the Caspian Sea, the van of this nomadic pastoral army being on the river Dnieper, and its rear under the great wall of China. The subordinate khans or chiefs passed the two monks onward from post to post until they came to the head-quarters of the great Baatu. These posts were far apart. The country where Baatu had his camp (called by the travellers Comania) was far beyond the Caspian Sea. But their toils were not yet over: Baatu ordered them to proceed to the court of his sovereign, the Khan of khans and Emperor of all men. They then entered a country called by them 'the country of the pagan Naymani,' where they travelled for many days, till they came to the proper lands of the Mongols. Through this latter country they journeyed for about three weeks, continually riding with great expedition. "In the whole of this journey," say the monks, “we used extraordinary exertion, as our Tartar guides were commanded to bring us on with all expedition: on which account we always travelled from early morning till night, without stopping to take food; and we often came to our quarters so late, as not to get any food that night, but were forced to eat in the morning what we ought to have had for supper. We changed horses frequently every day, and travelled constantly as hard as our horses could go." It is not easy to name the places or even to trace the route which they followed; but they appear to have passed by the head of the Baikal Lake, and to have traversed great part of the country vaguely denominated Chinese Tartary, going in the direction of the Everlasting Wall,' or the great wall of China. In all the vast regions occupied by the Mongols and their flocks and herds there was not one fixed town, there was scarcely a house; for the people of all degrees, and even their khans and the CARR, JOHN, a noted English architect in the latter half of the very emperor himself, lived constantly in tents, and moved from place 18th century, was born in 1721, at Horbury, near Wakefield, Yorkto place as pasturage, or war, or other business required. Wherever shire, at which place he afterwards built a church that was founded the great chiefs were, the assemblage of tents and the camp had a by himself. His practice was very considerable in Yorkshire and the name, which the monks set down; but in all probability, within a adjoining counties, where he erected several stately mansions, and short time after their passage, these tents were all struck and removed other buildings both public and private. He was twice lord mayor of to a distant quarter, and the populous spot was left a solitude in the York, in 1770 and 1785; and realised a handsome fortune, being said vast surrounding wilderness. They must have found the Emperor or to have been at the time of his death worth not less than 150,000l. Great Khan somewhere to the north of the sandy desert which spreads He died at his residence, Askam Hall, Yorkshire, February 22, 1807, itself between the Great Wall and Tartary, as there is no mention aged eighty-six. Carr belonged to the Anglo-Palladian school, and if made of their travelling on camels, or of their entering upon that he rarely displayed much fancy, he never fell into frippery, like Adam, desert. Here they do not attempt to name the place, merely calling nor did he, like Wyatt, mistake nakedness and tenuity for simplicity. it the Court of the Emperor. This great potentate, whom they call Among his principal works are the Town Hall at Newark, Notts.; the Kujak or Cuyne Khan, had many spacious tents, one being so vast Crescent at Buxton; the Bridge at Boroughbridge; Harewood House, that it could have contained 2000 men. Princes and great lords from Yorkshire, one of his best mansions; Tabley House, and the splendid China, a duke from Russia, two sons of the King of Georgia, and an Mausoleum of the Marquis of Rockingham at Wentworth. This envoy of the Kalif of Baghdad, were waiting submissively upon the mausoleum is shown in plate 61 of Stieglitz's 'Belle Architecture.' Mongol conqueror. In these circumstances, scarcely intelligible letters There is a good portrait of Carr in the second volume of Dance's and an admonitory message from the pope delivered by two poor bare-Collection of Portraits,' which work also contains the portraits of legged friars were not likely to make much impression upon the great several other architects of the same period. ahepherd-warrior. While the friars stayed about the gilled tent, a warlike ceremony was performed, which they interpreted into a defiance against the Church of Rome, the Roman empire, and all the Christian kingdoms and nations of the West; and they were other wise informed that it was the intention of these Mongols to subdue all the kingdoms of the earth, as Zinghis (Genghis) Khau had commanded them to do. The Lord of the World however admitted them to an audience, received from them the letters of the pope, and gave them in return letters for his Holiness written in the Mongol language and also in Arabic. The monks complain that during their stay there, which continued a whole month, they were in such extreme distress for victuals and drink that they could hardly keep themselves alive; adding that they must verily have perished at last if God had not sent to their aid a Russian goldsmith, who was in favour with the emperor, and who procured them some food. At last, on the feast of St. Brice (the 13th of November 1247), they received permission to depart from this inhospitable court. They returned by the same route, travelling the whole winter through the desert, and often sleeping at night on the snow. On the 9th of June 1248 they reached Kiow, where their Russian friends joyfully received them. In all they had past sixteen months entirely among the Mongols and the people that had been

CARRA'RA, DA, the name of an historical family of Italy, which held sovereign sway over Padua and the neighbouring provinces during the middle ages. Like most of the north Italian nobility of that period the Carrara appear to have been of Longobard origin. One of their ancestors, by name Luitolf, is recorded as the founder of the abbey of Carrara, in the territory of Padua, about 1027, and as having built a castle in the neighbourhood, which had feudal jurisdic tion granted to the owner by the emperor of Germany. Several of Luitolf's descendants filled municipal offices in the community of Padua. Marsilio da Carrara was put to death by Eccelino, tyrant of Padua. After the death of Eccelino, in 1259, Padua was res ored to its municipal independence as an important member of the Guelf league, and as such found itself at variance with the Della Scala, lords of Verona, who were Ghibelines. Jacopo da Carrara commanded the troops of Padua against Can della Scala in the early part of the 14th century. The citizens of Padua, being distracted by factions, elected Jacopo for their lord in 1318. Jacopo died in 1324, and was succeeded by his nephew Marsilio, who, being hard-pressed by the Delia Scala of Verona, was assisted by the republic of Venice in repelling them. He died in 1338, and was succeeded by his nephew Ubertino, who, dying in 1345, was succeeded by Marsilietto his relative, who belonged to a

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distant branch surnamed Carrara Pappafava. After two months Marsilietto was stabbed by Jacopo II., nephew of the first Jacopo. This Jacopo II. was himself murdered by a relative in 1350, and was succeeded by his brother Jacopino, jointly with Francesco his nephew, son of Jacopo II. Francesco da Carrara being at the head of the troops, arrested his uncle in 1355, and confined him in a fortress. He then remained sole lord of Padua. His reign was eventful. He was at the head of the Lombard or Guelf league against the Visconti of Milan. He afterwards entered into a war against Venice, but was obliged to conclude a humiliating peace, and to send his son to Venice to make apology. In 1878 he joined the Genoese in their attack against Venice, by which the republic was brought to the brink of ruin, a consummation which Francesco was determined to effect, but which was prevented by the patriotism of the citizens of Venice, and by the timely arrival of Carlo Zeno with his squadron. In 1381 peace was made. A fresh quarrel of Francesco with Antonio della Scala of Verona, led to an alliance of Francesco with Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who, after taking Verona, turned round against his ally, took Padua and Treviso, arrested Francesco in 1388, and kept him prisoner till his death at Monza in 1393. Francesco da Carrara was intimate with Petrarch, who speaks of him in his works.

Francesco II., called Novello, after his father's imprisonment wandered as an emigrant about Italy and France, begging for assistance to recover his father's territories, and at last he re-entered Padua in 1390. Having made peace with Visconti, he repaired to Venice, where, in presence of the senate, he expressed his gratitude for the assistance which he had received from the republic during his struggle against Visconti, swore perpetual friendship to Venice, and had his name inscribed in the golden book in the roll of the patricians. He however broke his word, and lost thereby his territory, and was taken prisoner to Venice, where he was strangled with two of his sons, in the dungeons of the ducal palace, in 1406, according to the barbarous practice of the Venetian senate in those times. Venice took possession of Padua, Treviso, and the other territories of the Carrara. Many years after, the last remaining son of Francesco, named Marsilio, having formed a conspiracy to recover possession of Padua, was seized and put to death in 1435.

(Litta, Famiglie Celebri Italiane; Sandi, Storia Civile di Venezia; Vergerio, Vita Carrariensium Principum ad ann. 1355; Verci, Gianbattista, Notizie Storico-genealogiche de Signori da Carrara; Ticozzi, Viaggi de Messer Francesco Novello da Carrara, Signor di Padova e di Taddea d'Este sua Consorte, Milan, 1823. This last is a kind of historical novel of the wanderings of Francesco II., after his father's imprisonment.)

CARREL, ÁRMAND NICOLAS, was born at Rouen, on the 8th of August 1800. He was the son of a draper in good circumstances in that city. At the age of seventeen he joined a regiment of cavalry, and the following year entered the military school of St.-Cyr. His political opinions had already taken the shape of principles, and these were so liberal, and so frankly enunciated, as to draw upon him, first the friendly remonstrance, and afterwards the censure of the governon, General d'Albignac, who was entirely devoted to the court. At the close of 1819 he was made second lieutenant of the 29th regiment of infantry, which was sent to the garrison of Béfort in 1821. The conspiracy which bears the name of this town, and has become historical, broke out in the following January, and Carrel was one of the many officers drawn within its vortex. But this time he was neither molested nor discovered.

Spain being invaded in 1823 by the French army under the Duke of Angoulême, Carrel took part with the Constitutionalists, and fought under Mina. "Some time after," says his friend the historian Rabbe, "he was one of the Frenchmen who were obliged to lay down their arms and surrender after the capitulation of Lers in Catalonia; but this capitulation not having been ratified by the French government, he was arrested on his return to France, and tried by three successive courts-martial." After being twice sentenced to death, and twice escaping through legal informalities, and suffering thirteen months' imprisonment, he was tried a third time at Toulouse, and, being acquitted, he returned to Paris in 1825 almost penniless, having closed against him for ever that profession of arms to which his early years had been devoted. Shortly after, he was engaged by Augustin Thierry, the author of the Conquest of England by the Normans,' to act as his secretary, and he took notes and made extracts for the last volume of that celebrated work. Introduced to the leading publishers by Thierry, he now wrote several Résumés,' or outlines of history, and grew into notice among the literary celebrities of the time. But his keen susceptibility could not endure even the gentle curb of the kindest employer, so he resolved to try his fortune alone. He left Thierry, and supported himself for several months by contributing to the reviews and newspapers. The boldness of his thoughts, and the eloquence and originality of his style, were gradually making their impression on men's minds. But his gains were small, and at one time (1827) he opened a book-shop of his own, to endeavour to increase his precarious income. It was in the little parlour behind that shop that he wrote the book which will survive him, his 'History of the Counter-Revolution in England.'

On the 1st of January 1830 the 'National' appeared, with Thiers, Mignet, and Carrel as its editors. This journal took at once a most

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decided course of opposition to the government of Charles X., and showed an advocacy equally distinct in favour of the Duke of Orleans, afterwards Louis Philippe: whence arose a suspicion, probably groundless, that the prince had furnished the capital. When the Polignac ministry issued the fatal ordinances of July, Carrel stood forward and wrote the first declaration of resistance in the National,' and the next morning appeared the spirited protest, which was universally distributed, and called the nation to arms. "Carrel did not," says Louis Blanc, "mingle in the ranks of the combatants as one of the fighters, but he went about to the different groups, with a black switch in his hand, saying to them, 'Vous n'avez qu'un bataillon' ("You have only one battalion ")." He did not believe that a popular outbreak could succeed against regular soldiers, and his two previous condemnations explain his reluctance to act rashly.

His two colleagues being employed by the new government, from that time until his deplorable death in 1836, Carrel took up a position as a journalist, such as no man in any country had won before. During the short but powerful administration of Casimir Perrier in 1832, his spirit proved too strong for the government, and a new stretch of arbitrary power was prevented. Subsequently he was prosecuted by the crown, and heavy penalties levied on his journal. He was several times imprisoned. On one occasion he spoke as advocate for a fellow-prisoner in the Chamber of Peers, when he startled the whole country by his invocation of the memory of Marshal Ney. After this his name was on every tongue, and he became the idol of the popular party.

But the well-balanced mind of this writer was not made for either extreme: he resisted the despotism of government; but he shrunk still more from revolutionary violence. Surrounded by all the fretful spirits of the day, he gauged the different parties which were forming, and found that he did not belong to them. This sad conviction preyed upon his heart. "He shuddered," says a recent historian, "to see himself at the head of certain men whose very obedience was rude and imperative; he distrusted their zeal, and ascribed to them a longing for vengeance, and a pre-determined despotism, which his own moderation disclaimed." This despondency became gradually habitual, and, in such a state of mind, Carrel was too easily drawn into that unhappy newspaper quarrel with Emile de Girardin, the editor of the Presse,' which led to the duel that so abruptly closed his career. Mortally wounded by a pistol-shot, he expired at St.Mandé, on the 24th of July 1836, in his thirty-sixth year. Arago, Beranger, Cornemin, and a crowd of distinguished deputies and writers followed him to the grave. His bust, by the sculptor David, marks the spot where he lies; but as yet no competent biography of this remarkable man has appeared.

(Rabbe, Universal Biography; Louis Blanc, Ten Years; Galérié des Contemporains Illustres.)

CARSTARES, WILLIAM, a Scottish ecclesiastic, distinguished for his political exertions in furtherance of the Revolution settlement, was born at Cathcart, near Glasgow, on the 11th of February 1649. His father was the Rev. John Carstares, minister of the High Church, Glasgow, who, like his son, but in a less degree and with less diplomatic capacity, took a lively share in the ecclesiastico-political movements of his time; offered a violent opposition to Cromwell's schemes of general toleration, and suffered by the prevalence of his own principles of clerical coercion during the persecutions of the Covenanters under Charles II. (See 'Notices of the Life of the Rev. John Carstares,' by the Rev. William Ferrie.) William Carstares acquired the rudiments of his education in a neighbouring village school, and afterwards studied in the University of Edinburgh. He appears to have become in early life not only an accomplished scholar, but an accurate observer of men. During a great portion of the latter end of the reign of Charles II. he lived in Holland, and studied theology at Utrecht, where he is supposed to have taken orders. Accident introduced him to the notice of the pensionary Fagel, who, finding in the young clergyman great sagacity and self-reliance, and a knowledge of the political institutions of his own country seldom equalled at his early years, recommended him to his master, the Prince of Orange, afterwards William III., who, anxious to have about his person individuals acquainted with the politics of Britain, chose young Carstares as one of his confidential advisers; and events justified the selection. The time of his return to Britain is not precisely known. He was in London in 1682, and was more or less connected with the projects on which the prosecutions in connection with the Rye-house and assassination plots were founded. There is reason to presume that he was the medium of communication between the court of Holland and some of the parties prepared for insurrection. He was, at all events, in the secrets of the Argyle party in Scotland, and the key to a cipher through which Argyle and Monmouth corresponded was found to be in his handwriting. A warrant to apprehend him was issued, and he was discovered attempting to conceal himself in Kent. Sufficient evidence could not be obtained to bring him to trial in England, and he sued out a writ of habeas corpus, which was defeated by sending him to Scotland, where the practice of torture still remained a stain on the administration of justice. In the presence of the Privy Council of Scotland he was subjected to the torture of the 'thumbigen,' or thumbscrew, which he bore with great fortitude, refusing to divulge the secrets he possessed. He was subsequently presented by the Privy

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Council with one of these cruel instruments, which he bequeathed as an heir-loom to his family; and it is a traditional anecdote that William III., having desired to experience the initial symptoms of this species of torture, the divine turned the screw at his request, but rather too vigorously for his Majesty's nerves. Carstares was ultimately released on a sort of compromise, by which he confessed a knowledge of matters which were otherwise proved in the trial of Baillie of Jerviswood. He returned to Holland with all his really important secrets undivulged, and was warmly received by the prince, who, in devising the expedition which created the Revolution of 1688, is said to have mainly relied on the full knowledge of British parties, and the advice, both bold and sagacious, of Carstares. He was subsequently of great service in producing a reconciliation between the Scottish Presbyterians and William III., who could not precisely understand the pertinacity with which his northern subjects adhered to the principle of spiritual independence. A General Assembly being about to convene, at which it was understood that there would be a violent opposition to the oath of allegiance, the king, taking advice from less sagacious counsellors, had prepared and delivered to a messenger despatches directing the peremptory enforcement of the act. It is said that Carstares assumed authority to stop the messenger in his Majesty's name; and presenting himself to the king (who had gone to bed) in the middle of the night, in the guise of a petitioner for his life, forfeited by his having thus committed high treason, to have prevailed on him to dispense with the oath. Whether the anecdote be true or not in all its circumstances, there is little doubt that his influence obtained the dispensation. He became now virtually prime minister for Scotland; and received the popular designation of 'Cardinal Carstares.' Even after the death of William, his knowledge of Scottish affairs, and the respect paid to his talents, left him with considerable influence. In 1704 he was chosen Principal of the University of Edinburgh. He died on the 28th of December 1715. (State Papers and Letters addressed to William Carstares; to which is prefixed the Life of Mr. Carstares, 4to, 1774.)

CARSTENS, ASMUS JACOB, a distinguished German artist, was born at St. Gürgen, near Schleswig, May 10th, 1754. His father was a miller, but his mother, who was the daughter of an advocate at Schleswig, had been exceedingly well-educated, and was therefore able to bring up her three sons in a manner very superior to what the circumstances of the family would otherwise have allowed. After his father's death, which happened when he was about nine years old, Asmus was sent to the public school at Schleswig, where he made little or no progress; but the pictures in the cathedral there by Jurian Ovens, a pupil of Rembrandt, which seemed to him miracles of the pencil, determined him to become himself a painter. His mother readily seconded his inclination, and on his quitting school at the age of sixteen, applied to two painters to take him as a pupil; but the sum demanded was much greater than could prudently be afforded. His mother soon after died, and his guardians refusing to listen to his earnest entreaties, placed him with a wine-merchant at Eckernforde. After the first feeling of despondency had passed over, he employed the whole of his leisure time, and frequently a considerable portion of the night, in drawing, and the reading of whatever books he could procure relative to art; and he about this time renewed his acquaintance with Ipsen, a young painter whom he had known at Schleswig, from whose instructions he obtained some insight into the management of colours and other technical matters. Having served five years, he purchased the remaining two of his apprenticeship, and proceeded to Copenhagen, where he again met with Ipsen, who procured for him free access to the Royal Gallery of Paintings, and to the collection of casts and antiques at the academy. Whilst prosecuting his studies here he endeavoured to support himself by taking liknesses in red chalk, and was so fortunate as to be thus enabled to continue his usual studies for two years longer, during which he produced his 'Balder's Death' and 'Eolus and Ulysses,' compositions that excited much notice, and would have obtained for him admittance into the academy, had he not given offence on a particular occasion. But having thus closed against himself the road to favour, he determined upon leaving Copenhagen and going to Rome along with his youngest brother (who had also been studying painting at Schleswig) and the sculptor Busch. Accordingly, they set out in the spring of 1783, and Carstens and his brother travelled on foot as far as Mantua, their companion having parted from them at Nuremberg. After passing an entire month at Mantua, chiefly occupied in examining the works of Giulio Romano, Carstens found that they must abandon their plan and return homewards. They accordingly set out again northward, passing through Switzerland to Lubeck, where Carstens was glad to take up with his former occupation of portrait painting, which he pursued for nearly five years; but he employed all the time not so occupied in making historical and poetical compositions. He also now began for the first time to read diligently; and the fruits of his studies shortly began to manifest themselves in a number of compositions from Homer, the Greek tragedians, and other great masters of poetry, both ancient and modern. But he felt that he was here in a great measure cut off from the hope of being able to produce any works of magnitude; and he therefore gratefully accepted the generous offer of Rodde, a wealthy amateur, who furnished him with the means of visiting Berlin.

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In that capital he at first had to contend with pecuniary difficulties, and was obliged to make designs for book-prints. At length, his Fall of the Angels,' a large composition containing upwards of 200 figures, obtained for him an appointment as one of the professors at the academy, and the following year a considerable gratuity was added to his salary. His chief object however in accepting this post was as a means of obtaining a travelling pension to Rome, which he was now more than ever desirous of visiting. He had become acquainted with the architect Genelli, who was just returned from Italy, and on his recommendation was employed to decorate the walls of a saloon in the Dorville palace with a series of mythological subjects. This work procured for him an introduction to the king, who granted him a travelling pension, and in the summer of 1792 he again set out for Rome. He travelled through Dresden and Nuremberg, making some stay at the first place for the purpose of visiting the Gallery of Antiques and that of pictures; and at the latter, in order to become acquainted with the works of Albert Dürer, whom, after Michel Angelo and Raffaelle, he held to be one of the greatest masters in his art. Arrived at Rome, Rome for a long time existed to him only in the Vatican. His first object was to imbue himself thoroughly with the spirit of Michel Angelo and Raffaelle, to catch if possible their modes of thought, and to trace their conceptions to their source. Highly wrought up as his expectations had been, he found them here surpassed, and that their works were instinct with a mental power of which no copies or engravings had before conveyed to him any idea. The severity of his principles of criticism obtained for him not a few enemies, and they more than insinuated that he could not perform what he exacted from others. He soon convinced them of the contrary by a large drawing representing the visit of the Argonauts to the centaur Chiron, a subject he had before produced at Berlin, but which he now recomposed, and in a style that plainly indicated how much he had already benefited by studying Michel Angelo and Raffaelle.

The two years to which his stay at Rome was limited having expired, he begged hard for a little longer extension of the term, as he was preparing to make a public exhibition of the subjects which he had produced while in Italy. His exhibition was opened in April 1795, and consisted of eleven designs mostly poetical and mythological, and few of them ever before treated. Both in style and subject these works were an earnest of powers as superior as they were uncommon, and the artist's fame was soon spread through Germany by an article on the exhibition in Wieland's 'Mercur.' The same year he sent three compositions to Berlin, whereupon he was again urged to return to his post in the academy; but instead of its being complied with, this demand was followed by remonstrance and refusal on the part of Carstens, and his connection with the Berlin academy soon after ceased altogether. In the course of the two following years he produced many fine compositions, including a series of twenty-four subjects from Pindar, Orpheus, and Apollonius Rhodius, all of them illustrative of the Argonautic expedition. This series it was his intention to etch himself, but in the autumn of 1797 he was attacked by a serious malady, which was succeeded by a slow fever and an obstinate cough, whereby he was so enfeebled that he was unable to employ his pencil except for a very short interval in the day. Yet even after he was incapable of quitting his bed his wonted enthusiasm and energy did not forsake him; and but a few hours before his death he conversed with his friend Fernow respecting a mythological subject which had suggested itself to him. He expired on the 25th of May 1798, when he had just entered his forty-fifth year.

Thus may Carstens be said to have been prematurely cut off just as he had begun his career as an artist. In him Germany lost one who gave promise of taking rank among the greatest masters of the art. His life as yet had been a life of preparation. To art he gave himself undividedly; his whole soul was in it, so that, although he had not mastered some things that lie more on the surface, he had dived into its depths and recesses. What he chiefly valued was creative power, intelligence, and mind, of which he regarded external forms merely as the expression. Conformably with such opinions and theory was his own practice. His compositions, which he was in the habit of completely shaping out, maturing, and finishing up mentally, before he committed them to paper, are all marked by a severe simplicity and fine poetic conception; and had a longer life and health been granted to him, he would doubtless have left behind him works commensurate in other respects with their intellectual value, and which would have acquired for him the kind of fame he coveted.

CARTE, THOMAS, was born in April 1686 at Clifton in Warwickshire, of which parish his father, the Rev. Samuel Carte, was vicar. He matriculated at Oxford, but took his degree of Master of Arts in the University of Cambridge, and afterwards entered into holy orders, and was attached to the cathedral of Bath.

Carte's opinions were very strong in favour of the Stuart family, and his zeal brought on him some suffering. On the accession of George L. he declined to take the oaths of allegiance, and therefore abandoned the priesthood: in 1715 he was obliged to conceal himself lest he should be apprehended as participating in the rebellion; and in 1722 he was so strongly suspected of being concerned in the conspiracy of Bishop Atterbury (whose secretary he was), that a reward of 1000l. was offered for his apprehension. He escaped to France, where he

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resided nearly twelve years under an assumed name. Again in 1744 he was arrested under a like suspicion of favouring the expected descent of the Pretender. He died near Abingdon, April 2, 1754. So far as great labour and indefatigable research constitute an historian, Carte may lay claim to that character. His works consist of an edition of "Thuanus,' in 7 vols. fol.; a 'Life of James, Duke of Ormonde,' in 3 vols. fol., and 4 vols. fol., of the 'History of England,' bringing it down to the year 1654. Besides pamphlets and some minor works, he likewise published at Paris a Catalogue, in French, of the Gascon, Norman, and French Rolls, preserved in the Tower of London. His manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. CARTER, ELIZABETH, was the daughter of Dr. Nicholas Carter, an eminent Latin, Greek, and Hebrew scholar, one of the six preachers in Canterbury cathedral, and perpetual curate of Deal in Kent, where his daughter Elizabeth was born December 16, 1717. Her mother, a Dorsetshire heiress of the name of Swayne, was supposed to have shortened her life by repining over the loss of her fortune, which had been invested in the South Sea Stock. Elizabeth was educated by her father, who made no distinction between her and her brothers. Though slow at first, she afterwards made rapid progress in the learned languages, to which she added Italian, German, Spanish, and French: she acquired the last in the house of a Protestant refugee minister, and the three former by her own exertions. Her proficiency in these studies did not lead her to neglect needlework, music, or the other accomplishments common to her sex. Miss Carter's earliest productions appeared in the 'Gentleman's Magazine' under the signature of 'Eliza.' In 1738 she published some poems in a very thin quarto volume, which were succeeded in the year following by a translation of some strictures by Crousaz on Pope's Essay on Man.' In the same year she translated from the Italian of Algarotti 'An Explanation of Newton's Philosophy, for the Use of Ladies, in Six Dialogues on Sight and Colours.' These publications appearing before their author was twenty-two gave her immediate celebrity, and brought her into correspondence with most of the learned of that day. Among others may be mentioned Bishop Butler, the author of the Analogy;' Dr. Benson, bishop of Gloucester, and Archbishop Secker; Dr. Johnson, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and Burke. In the midst of her literary occupations she undertook the task of entirely educating her youngest brother for the university, and performed it so as to merit the encomium of his examiners upon his admission. During her intervals of leisure she translated Epictetus for the amusement of her friend Miss Talbot, to whom the sheets were sent as they were finished, and shown to Archbishop Secker, who took an interest in the progress of the work. In compliance with the wishes of her friends she sent her translation to the press, and on its publication the literary journals at home and abroad were full of her praise. Dr. Johnson availed himself of her pen for a paper (No 44) for the 'Rambler.' Of her learning he thought so highly as to say, when speaking of an eminent scholar, that "he understood Greek better than any one whom he had ever known except Elizabeth Carter." This learned lady was never married. She lived to the age of eighty-nine, having died in 1806, leaving behind her a character adorned by finer qualities than even those of a highly-cultivated understanding. (Pennington, Memoirs.) CARTERET, PHILIP, a naval officer, who commanded the Swallow,' which sailed on the 22nd of August 1766 on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas. under the orders of Captain Wallis, who sailed in the Dolphin.' The Swallow' being a bad sailer, the two ships were unable to keep company, and were at last parted in a gale of wind. Captain Carteret's voyage may therefore be considered as a separate expedition, and several interesting geographical discoveries were the result. He arrived in England on the 20th of February, 1769, after an absence of two years and a half. An account of his voyage is given by Dr. Hawksworth in the introduction to his 'Narrative of Captain Cooks First Voyage.'

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CARTES, DES. [DES CARTES.]

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CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND, was born on the 24th of April 1743, at Marnham, iu the county of Nottingham. His family was ancient and highly respectable, and had suffered in its fortune on account of its attachment to the cause of Charles I. Edmund Cartwright received the early part of his education at Wakefield, and being intended for the church, he afterwards went to University College, Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of Magdalen College. He afterwards held the living of Brampton, near Chesterfield, and subsequently he removed to the living of Goad by Marwood in Leicestershire. He wrote some poetical pieces at an early age, some of which were printed anonymously. In 1770 he published in his own name a legendary poem, entitled 'Arminia and Elvira,' which was received with much favour, and soon passed through several editions. He wrote also the Prince of Peace' and Sounets to Eminent Men.' He was for a considerable time a contributor to the Monthly Review.' The duties of his calling were besides varied by a literary correspondence with several eminent individuals.

In the summer of 1784, during a visit at Matlock, happening to meet with several gentlemen from Manchester, the conversation turned upon the subject of mechanical weaving. Dr. Cartwright's attention had never been directed to mechanical inventions, but though in his fortieth year, the impulse which his mind received from this accidental

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direction of its powers, enabled him by the following April to bring his first power-loom into action, which, though an extremely rude machine, soon received many valuable improvements. Its first introduction was opposed both by manufacturers and their workmen, owing to various prejudices; and a mill containing 500 of his looms, the first which had been erected, was wilfully burnt down. In 1813 there were not more than 2300 power-looms in the United Kingdom. In fact, when first introduced, and before various improvements were made in it, the machine was scarcely equivalent in its results to manual labour. It is scarcely necessary to say that the power-loom is now in almost universal use. In April 1790, Dr. Cartwright took out a patent for combing wool; altogether he obtained ten different patents for inventions and improvements of various kinds. In 1807 a number of the principal cotton spinners memorialised the government on behalf of Dr. Cartwright, who had hitherto reaped little advantage from the exercise of his inventive talents. He also petitioned the legislature himself in support of his claims; and in 1809 parliament granted him 10,000l. for "the good service he had rendered the public by his invention of weaving." This was a smaller sum than he had expended on his projects, but it enabled him to pass the remainder of his days in ease and comfort. He died on the 30th of October 1823, in the eighty-first year of his age.

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CARTWRIGHT, JOHN, brother of the preceding, was born at Marnham in 1740, and entered the navy at an early age. In 1774 he published 'Letters on American Independence;' and though attached to his profession he declined taking part in the struggle which ensued between the mother country and the North American colonies. In 1775 he received a major's commission in the Nottinghamshire militia, an appointment which the ministry regarded with displeasure. The attainment of annual parliaments and universal suffrage became the object of his exertions; and to further this end he was active in establishing the Society for Constitutional Information,' and in co-operating with Tooke, Hardy, Thelwall, and other advocates of reform. He was a witness on the trial of the above individuals; and in 1819 was himself the object of an ex-officio prosecution for having with others taken steps for procuring a 'legislatorial attorney' to be returned to parliament for the then unrepresented town of Birmingham. His name is intimately connected with the early history of the question of parliamentary reform. He possessed considerable intelligence and ingenuity, and was the author of several useful projects, and a number of pamphlets and occasional addresses. Though retaining his commission in the navy, he was invariably called Major Cartwright. He died on the 23rd of September, 1824, and would have completed his eighty-fourth year on the 28th. A bronze statue has been erected to his memory in Burton-crescent, London, by contributions from his admirers and friends.

(Life and Correspondence of Major Cartwright, edited by his niece, F. D. Cartwright, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1826.)

CARTWRIGHT, WILLIAM, born in 1611, was the son of a person who, after having possessed a good estate, had sunk to the station of an innkeeper at Cirencester. He was educated at Westminster and Oxford; and, taking orders, received in 1642 an appointment in the church of Salisbury. In the same year he was one of the council of war named by the University of Oxford; and early in 1643 he became junior proctor and reader in metaphysics. He died Dec. 23, 1643, of a malignant fever, then epidemic in Oxford. Although Cartwright thus died before having completed his thirty-second year, he had attained high reputation both for learning and for genius. Precocity, rather than strength, must have been the quality which gained for him Ben Jonson's commendation, "My son Cartwright writes all like a man." A collected edition of his Comedies, Tragi-Comedies, and other Poems' appeared in 1647, and again in 1651. The miscellaneous poems which the volume contains are much inferior in merit to the four plays, one of which, The Ordinary,' has very justly received a place in the collection first published by Dodsley.

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CA'RUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, prefect of the prætorium under the emperor Probus, succeeded him by the nomination of the soldiers, after they had murdered Probus (A.D. 282) in his camp near Sirmium, in the Illyricum. Carus was a native of Narbo, an old Roman colony, and as such he prided himself in being a Roman citizen by birth. (See his letter to the senate announcing his nomination, in Vopiscus, Historia Augusta.') He made war against the Sarmatians, and defeated them. He marched next against the Persians (A.D. 283), and

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Coin of Carus.

British Museum. Actual size. Gold. Weight 75 grains, took with him his younger son Numerianus, leaving his elder son Carinus to rule over Italy and the other provinces of the west in his absence. Carus overran Mesopotamia, and conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon, after which, as he was encamped beyond the Tigris, a great

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thunder-storm arose, and it was reported that the emperor was killed in his tent by the lightning: the servants upon this set fire to his tent, and his body was consumed. His secretary Calpurnius however, in a letter which he wrote to the prefect of Rome, said that the emperor, who was already ill, died during the storm. But the strongest suspicions rested upon Arrius Aper, prefect of the prætorium, the same who soon after killed Numerianus. Carus reigned about seven teen months. He was succeeded by his two sons, Carinus and Numerianus.

CARY. [FALKLAND, LORD.]

CARY, REV. HENRY FRANCIS, was born at Birmingham in 1772, and was entered a commoner of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1790; having however already commenced author by the publication of 'An Irregular Ode to General Elliott' in 1787, and of a 4to pamphlet of 'Sonnets and Odes' in 1788. While at the university he devoted much of his time to the study of Italian, French, and English literature, as well as of Greek and Latin. Having taken his degree of M.A. in 1796, he was in 1797 presented by the Marquis of Anglesey to the vicarage of Bromley Abbot's, in Staffordshire, worth 1874. a year, with a residence. The same year he published An Ode to General Kosciusko.' In 1805 appeared his translation of the Inferno' of Daute in English blank verse, accompanied with the original Italian; and in 1814 his entire version of the 'Divina Commedia.' It was some years however before this work, to which Cary principally owes his literary reputation, attracted much attention. It was first brought into general notice by Coleridge, who spoke of it with warm praise in his lectures at the Royal Institution, and who is said to have become acquainted with it and with Cary himself about the same time. Ultimately its merits were generally acknowledged, and the author had the satisfaction of bringing out a fourth edition of it before his death. It is not only unusually careful and exact, but deserves the praise of very considerable force and expressiveness. It must however be considered as a defect detracting materially from its claim to be regarded as a faithful representation of the 'Divina Commedia' that it is in blank verse: rhyme is an essential element of the Gothic spirit and character of Dante's poetry. Cary afterwards produced verse translations of the 'Birds' of Aristophanes, and of the Odes' of Pindar; a series of 'Lives of English Poets,' in continuation of Johnson's, and another of 'Lives of Early French Poets,' in the 'London Magazine;' besides editions of the works of Pope, Cowper, Milton, Thomson, and Young. In 1826 he was appointed assistant librarian in the British Museum, but he resigned that situation in 1832, on the claim that he and his friends conceived he had to the office of keeper of the printed books being passed over in favour of another person. He some years afterwards received a pension of 2004. a year from the crown, which he enjoyed till his death, which took place at his house in Charlotte-street, Bloomsbury, 14th of August, 1844. He was interred on the 21st in Poet's Corner, Westminster Abbey. (Memoir of the Rev. H. F. Cary; with Literary Journal and Letters, by his son, the Rev. H. Cary.)

CA'SAS, BARTHOLOMÉ DE LAS, was born at Seville of a noble family in 1474. When he was about twenty he accompanied his father, who embarked with Colombo in his second voyage to the West Indies. On his return to Spain he entered holy orders and became curate of a parish. After some years he went back to Hispaniola, where he found the Indian population cruelly oppressed by the Spaniards. By the system of repartimientos, enacted by order of King Ferdinand of Aragon, and enforced by the governor Albuquerque, the unfortunate natives were distributed like cattle into lots of so many hundred heads each, and sold to the highest bidders, or given away to courtiers and other men of rank in Spain, who by their agents sold them to the colonists. The mortality became so great among these unhappy beings, who were naturally of a weak constitution, that out of 60,000 Indians, who were on the island of Hispaniola in 1508, only 14,000 remained in 1516. The Dominican friars were the only persons who loudly disapproved of this system; the secular clergy and even the Franciscans took part with the colonists. Las Casas sided with the Dominicans, and finding that Albuquerque was deaf to all their remonstrances, he sailed for Spain, asked and obtained an audience of Ferdinand, to whom he made such a dreadful picture of the fatal effects of the repartimientos, that the king's conscience became alarmed, and he promised Las Casas that he would remedy the abuse. But Ferdinand died soon after, and Charles I., commonly called Charles V., succeeded him. The minister Ximenes, who governed Spain in the absence of the young king, listened with favour to Las Casas' remonstrances, and appointed three superintendents from among the Hieronymites, an order which enjoyed great consideration in Spain, with instructions to proceed to the West Indies, and examine the matter on the spot, and with full authority to decide finally upon the great question of the freedom or slavery of the Indians. He sent with them a jurist of the name of Zuazo, who had a great reputation for learning and probity, and lastly, he added Las Casas to the commission with the title of Protector of the Indians. The commission proceeded to Hispaniola in 1517. After listening to the statements of both parties, colonists and Dominicans, or friends of the Indians, and having also examined the physical and intellectual condition of the natives themselves, the Hieronymites came to the conclusion that the Indians would not work unless obliged to

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do so; that their mental capacities were much lower than those of Europeans, and could not be stimulated to exertion or be made to follow any moral or religious rules, except by authority; and therefore they decided that the system of repartimientos must continue for the present at least, but at the same time they enforced strict regulations as to the manner in which the Indians should be treated by their masters, in order to prevent as much as possible any abuse of power on the part of the latter. Las Casas, not satisfied with this decision, set off again for Spain to appeal to Charles V. himself, who came about that time from Flanders to visit his Spanish dominions. The question was discussed in the king's council, and as the difficulty of cultivating the colonies without the repartimientos was the great objection, Las Casas, it is said, observed that the African blacks, who were already imported into the West Indies, were a much stronger race than the Indians, and might make a good substitute. This suggestion has been made, by most writers on American affairs, a ground of reproach against the memory of Las Casas. It ought to be observed however that the fact of the suggestion rests solely upon the authority of Herrera, who wrote thirty years after the death of Las Casas. The writers contemporary with Las Casas, and Sepulveda himself, his determined antagonist, are silent upon this point. (Grégoire, 'Apologie de B. de Las Casas,' in the fourth volume of the Memoirs of Moral and Political Science of the French Institute.') It is certain, and both Herrara, and after him Robertson, acknowledge it, that, as early as 1503, negro slaves had been imported into America, and that in 1511 a large importation took place by King Ferdinand's authorisation. The Portuguese seem to have been the first Europeans who traded in black slaves. A negro was found to do as much work as four Indians. Charles V. granted a licence to one of his Flemish courtiers to import 4000 blacks into the West Indies. The courtier sold his licence to some Genoese speculators for 25,000 ducats, and the Genoese then began to organise a regular slave-trade between Africa and the New World. But the price of the blacks was so high that few of the colonists could avail themselves of this supply, and consequently the slavery of the Indians was perpetuated for a long time after, until the race became extinct on most of the islands.

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Las Casas, unable to obtain the deliverance of the Indians through his oral remonstrances, resorted to his pen. He wrote-1st, Tratado sobre la materia de los Indios que se han hecho esclavos por los Castellanos;' 2nd, ‘Brevissima relacion de la destruycion de las Indias Occidentales por los Castellanos,' in which he gives a frightful account of the acts of oppression and barbarity committed by the conquerors; 3rd, Remedios por la reformacion de las Indias;' 4th, Treynta proposiciones pertenecientes al derecho que la Yglesia y los principes Cristianos tienen sobre los Infieles, y el titulo que los Reyes de Castilla tienen a las Indias Occidentales." (Navarrete, 'Coleccion de los Viages y Descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles, &c.,' 2 vols. 4to, Madrid, 1825, in which the author treats at length of Las Casas.)

Las Casas, despairing of effecting any good for the Indians in the Spanish settlements, formed the project of a new colony to be established on the recently-discovered tierra firma, or mainland, and to be managed according to his own views, which were afterwards realised in a great measure by the Jesuits in their settlements of Paraguay. Accordingly he obtained from Charles V. a grant of 300 miles along the coast of Cumana. But before he set out he had to sustain a public disputation, in the presence of the king and council, against Quevedo, bishop of Darien, who had lately returned from the West Indies, and whose opinious concerning the Indians were diametrically opposed to those of Las Casas. As usual in such cases, the controversy did not clear up the matter, and Charles, uncertain what to do, confirmed his grant to Las Casas for the sake of experiment. But before Las Casas could reach his destination, an expedition had sailed from Puerto Rico under Diego Ocampo, for the purpose of invading and plundering that very coast of Cumana which was intended by Las Casas for his pacific settlement. The consequence was, that the remaining natives conceived such a horror against the Spaniards that when Las Casas came to settle on the coast they attacked his settlement and killed or drove away the settlers. Las Casas, crossed in all his benevolent endeavours, and attacked by the sneers and reproaches of the colonists, went back to Hispaniola, where he took refuge in the convent of the Dominicans, whose order he entered in 1522. Some years after he returned to Spain, and made a fresh appeal to Charles V. in favour of the oppressed Indians. He then met an antagonist in Doctor Gines de Sepulveda, who had written a book in defence of the slavery and destruction of the Indians, taking for his argument the treatment of the Canaanites by the Hebrews. Las Casas replied to him, and an account of the whole controversy is contained in the work which was published in 1552, styled Disputa entre el Obispo Fray Bartholomé de Las Casas y al Doctor Gines de Sepulveda sobre la justicia de las conquistas de las Indias.' Las Casas had meantime been appointed Bishop of Chiapa, in the newly-conquered empire of Mexico. After remaining for many years in his diocese, ever intent on mitigating the sufferings which the natives endured from the conquerors, Las Casas returned to Spain in 1551, having resigned his bishopric, and died in a convent of his order at Madrid in 1566. He bore among both natives and Spaniards in the New World the names of Father and Protector of the Indians.

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