has always been a decided advocate for the extension of territory; and consequently strongly supported both the annexation of Texas and the war with Mexico; is anxious to maintain a high protection tariff; and has made himself especially notorious by the eagerness with which he has on every possible occasion joined in and stimulated the cry for war with England. He took no part in the war of North and South. CASSANDER was the son of Antipater, to whom Macedonia was allotted on the division of the Macedonian empire after the death of Alexander. Antipater dying, B.C. 318, appointed Polysperchon to succeed him. (ANTIPATER.] Cassander bore this exclusion with indignation; but finding his party too weak for successful opposition, he fled to Asia, and sought the assistance of Antigonus and Ptolemæus. Antigonus gave him 4000 men, with whom he sailed to Athens, and was received by Nicanor, the Macedonian governor of the port and fortress of Munychia, who had recently, by a sudden attack, obtained posse-sion of the chief part of Piræus also. Polysperchon lost no time in conducting an army to besiege him, but was soon obliged, by scarcity of provisions, to draw off the greater part of his troops into Peloponnesus, leaving only an army of observation in Attica. Almost the whole of Peloponnesus favoured Polysperchon; Megalopolis however remained firm to the party of Cassander, and defended itself with such resolution that his rival was compelled to retreat from under its walls with mortification and disgrace. Parties were so balanced in Greece, that a slight thing was enough to turn the scale in favour of one or the other. "Polysperchon falling into disgrace through this failure (says Diodorus, xviii. 74), most of the Greek cities went over to Cassander;" and, among the rest, Athens, seeing no chance of recovering possession of its ports by force of arms, B.C. 317.

In the following year, Cassander marched into Macedonia against Polysperchon, who, with the view of strengthening his party among the Macedonians, had associated with himself Olympias, the mother of Alexander. Leaving Callas, his general, to oppose Polysperchon, Cassander himself blockaded Olympias in Pydna during the winter. That town yielded on capitulation early in the year B.C. 315, when Olympias, in express contravention of the terms of surrender, was put to death through his agency. Having now gained possession of Macedonia, with the power, though not the name, of a king, he took to wife Thessalonice, the daughter of Philip and half-sister of Alexander, in hope of confirming his own ascendancy by the powerful associations connected with the royal blood. In the same year he founded the flourishing city of Cassandria, in Pallene, which was formerly known by the name of Potidæa, and commenced the restoration of Thebes, twenty years after its destruction by Alexander. Soon after he joined the combination of Ptolemæus, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, against Antigonus. The war which ensued was concluded, B.C. 311, on condition, so far as related to Cassander, that he should be military governor (σrparnyds) of Europe, till the son of Roxana by Alexander should attain his majority. This limitation Cassander made of no avail by immediately putting to death both the young prince and his mother, B.C. 309. Polysperchon set up another rival to him, in the person of Hercules, the only surviving son of Alexander by Barsine; but he agreed to put Hercules to death on condition of Peloponnesus being given up to him. Hercules was accordingly murdered, but Polysperchon was not able to take possession of Peloponnesus, which was the stipulated price of his treachery.

No part of history is more complicated, and less interesting, than that which relates to the wars of Alexander's immediate successors. We therefore pass over the constant employment given to Cassander by the confirmed enmity of the Etolians, and by the disturbances continually fomented in Greece by Antigonus.

During the Rhodian war [ANTIGONUS], Cassander regained much influence in Greece, which he had lost by the intrigues of Antigonus and the military successes of his son Demetrius. But after the siege of Rhodes was raised, Demetrius again repaired to Greece, and, in the year B.C. 302, became master of the greater part of Peloponnesus. The danger in which Antigonus was involved by the second confederacy of Ptolemæus, Seleucus, &c., recalled Demetrius to Asia; and the death of Antigonus at the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, removed Cassander's most formidable enemy. From that time forwards, he held secure possession of Macedonia, though Demetrius retained considerable influence in Greece. He died B.C. 296 (Clinton), leaving the character of an ambitious, able, unscrupulous man, of whom the best that can be said is, that his rivals were no better than himself. He was succeeded in Macedonia by Philip, his eldest son.

CASSI'NI. We have now for the second time to sketch the lives and labours of a family of distinguished men, who, though their contributions to the stock of knowledge do not rival in extent or value those of the Bernoullis, present nevertheless a succession of talent and industry which rarely occurs. From the date of its establishment in 1670, till the time when the revolution destroyed all hereditary privileges, the Observatory of Paris passed from one Cassini to another through four generations, as though it had been transmitted by the law of property.

JOHN DOMINIC CASSINI was born at Perinaldo, in the district of Nice, June 8, 1625, of a respectable family which came from Siena, of which place a Cardinal Cassini was archbishop in 1426. He was educated by the Jesuits at Genoa, and there are some Latin poems of his in a collection of 1646. He attached himself to mathematics and BIOG. DIV. VOL. IL

astronomy, and also it is said to astrology, of which he was cured by discovering that a prediction which succeeded had been calculated wrongly. He also read the work of Pico di Mirandola against astrologers. In 1644, at the invitation of the Marquis Malvasia, who was building an observatory, he removed to Bologna, and in the university of that place, after the death of Cavaliéri, in 1650, he succeeded to the chair of astronomy. He here observed the comet of 1652, on which he published his first work. He made various observations with a gnomon and meridian line constructed in a church at Bologna. In 1657 he was deputed, with another, ambassador to the pope, on a quarrel between Bologna and Ferrara relative to the river Po, and on his return was appointed to the superintendence of the river for the former place. In 1663 he was appointed to repair the works of Fort Urban. He was at this time patronised by Pope Alexander VII., and afterwards by Clement IX. In 1664-5 he made the first of his more brilliant and useful discoveries, namely, the time of the rotation of Jupiter, which he fixed at 9 hours 56 minutes. Professor Airy, by recent observations, makes it 9 h. 55 m. 21-3 s. He also saw, for the first time, the shadows of the satellites on the disc. [CAMPANI.] By comparison of his own observations with those of Galileo, he constructed (1665) his first tables of the satellites. In 1666-7 he found the rotation of Mars to be 24 h. 40 m. (it is 24 h. 39 m. 21.3 s.), and in this same year he ascertained that the rotation of Venus, which is difficult to observe on account of her phases, does not differ much from that of Mars (it is 23 h. 21 m. 78.) He made the apparent rotation of the sun to be about 27 days, which is very near the truth. These results show considerable skill and assiduity, and made the name of Cassini very well known throughout Europe.

When Colbert founded the Academy of Sciences, in 1666, and at the same time projected an observatory at Paris, he proposed to Cassini to remove into France, and offered him a pension equivalent to his Italian emoluments. Cassini expressed his willingness to comply if the consent of the pope (Clement IX.) could be obtained; which was done on condition that Cassini's absence should not last more than two or three years. He arrived at Paris April 4, 1669, and began his duties at the observatory September 14, 1671, where his observations extend from 1671 to 1683. In 1673 the Bolognese government, which had kept all his appointments open, required him to return; but Colbert succeeded in negociating his continued stay in France, and accordingly in the same year he was naturalised in his new country, and married a French lady. He never returned to Italy, except for a short time in 1695, but remained at the head of the Paris Observatory. In the latter years of his life he was totally blind. He died September 14, 1712, without disease, and only, as Fontenelle remarks, "par la seule necessité de mourir." His eldest son was killed at the battle of La Hogue; of his second we shall have to speak as soon as we have completed the present part of our subject. In 1671-2 he discovered the third and fifth satellites of Saturn, and in 1684 the first and second. His gnomon at Bologna led him to more correct solar tables than had been in use, and to more exact values of the refraction. He gave a more complete explanation of the lunar libration than either Kepler or Hevelius, particularly in the determination of the quantities concerned; and though he did not leave the actual observations, Delambre, who, as we shall see, judges him severely, appears to think that he did establish by observation the coincidence of the nodes of the lunar equator and orbit. He was the first who carefully observed the zodiacal light, which he imagines he discovered. His later tables of the satellites of Jupiter (1668 and 1693) were considerable improvements; but though in possession of facts analogous to those which led to the discovery of the motion of light, he not only did not make that discovery, but rejected it when announced by Roemer. For his arc of the meridian, his observations relative to refraction, with a multitude of other points too long to notice here, we must refer to Delambre, 'Hist. d'Astron. Mod.,' vol. ii.

An

We have seen that Cassini, as an observer, was no ordinary man. Even if we leave out of view discoveries such as those of the satellites of Saturn, which though brilliant involve no extraordinary sagacity, we have still the continued, systematic, and successful observations of the satellites of Jupiter. But as a philosopher, and as a reasoner upon the results of his observations, Cassini does not excel. obstinate follower of Descartes, we have no evidence that he ever looked into Newton; probably his mathematical knowledge was not sufficient to enable him to understand the 'Principia.' A devoted, if not a bigoted adherent of the Church of Rome, he was a Ptolemaist long after the time when Galileo had made the speculation of Copernicus sound astronomical doctrine; and we cannot give much admiration to the power of a mind which enslaves itself to a church in a matter of science. His unskilful handling of Kepler's laws, his crude and unsatisfactory notions upon comets, and indeed his method of dealing with almost any subject which involved investigation, are so many points which render the extravagant praises of Fontenelle and Lalande altogether inadmissible. His reputation in fact was altogether of a different species from that which it ought to have been. So far as that sort of notoriety is concerned with which the public in general is most struck, Cassini and William Herschel appear to resemble each other. Nevertheless, take from the latter Uranus and six satellites, with two of Saturn, and there is left a first-rate repu tation among astronomers; withdraw the similar discoveries of Cassini

and he remains a commendable and even a remarkable observer, but by no means in his present rank. And it must be remarked that there is throughout Cassini's writings a continual tendency, either from ignorance or vanity, to appropriate the discoveries of predecessors or contemporaries. He speaks of himself as the first who observed the variation of the moon's diameter depending upon her altitude. "Oui," says Delambre, in one of his parentheses, "le premier après Kepler, Auzout, et Hevelius." The summing up of this searching historian is worth extracting. "But why, we may ask, has Cassini so universal a reputation? Why has he had more praise to his own share than all astronomers together, at least during their lives? Firstly, because there was in him much to praise, because he was industrious, because he kept public attention constantly awake, because he employed for the most part unusual means, such as his gnomon and his long telescopes; and because, being invited to France as a man who could not be done without, the world early became accustomed to consider him superior to those who had wished him to join them. He was a conquest for which the monarch was praised, and all the éloges bestowed upon him went indirectly to the king. He attributed (faisait hommage) all his discoveries to Louis XIV.; he was the favourite astronomer of the court, so that it did not need as much as he had to secure him more reputation than any other. All the world understood Cassini's discoveries: Jupiter turned in 9h. 56m., Venus in 23h. 20m., Mars in 24h. 40m.; Saturn had four moons, which no one had seen till then, and a medal had been struck to commemorate the latter. In reality, these phenomena were isolated novelties, infinitely curious things, which all astronomers are very glad to know, but which could have been omitted without any result in the smallest degree prejudicial to the progress of real astronomy. If we feel authorised to reproach any one it is not Cassini, but his contemporaries." On the other hand, Lalande, an astronomer of real merit but of great want of judgment, has the following absurd exaggeration :"Cassini was one of those rare men who seem formed by nature to give a new face to the sciences; astronomy, augmented and perfected in all its parts by the discoveries of Cassini, underwent in his hands a most astonishing revolution. This great man was the chief glory of the glory of Louis XIV. in this respect, and the name of Cassini is almost synonymous in France with that of the creator of astronomy." On which we can only say, may every Lalande find a Delambre!

The writings of Dominic Cassini are numerous, and a complete list may be found in Lalande's 'Bibliographie Astronomique.' It is a presumption, so far as it goes, of the accuracy of the character given by Delambre, that none of these writings are now sought after as containing matter of any lasting value, except only the pure results of observation.

JAMES CASSINI, son of Dominic, was born at Paris, February 18, 1677, and at seventeen years of age was thought of sufficient promise to be received a member of the Academy of Sciences. He accompanied his father to Italy in 1695, and afterwards travelled in England and Holland, where he became acquainted with Newton, Flamsteed, &c. He succeeded his father at the observatory, was Maître des Comptes, and died April 16, 1756. He was proceeding to his estate of Thury, when the carriage was upset, and he became immediately paralytic. There is not much of brilliancy in the results of the life of James Cassini as compared with those of his father, whom, on the whole, he much resembled in the character of his methods of observing and deducing. He was a better mathematician, and devoted himself for the most part to fundamental points of astronomy, and to the construction of tables. His separate writings are not numerous; some of them on optics by himself and his brother (afterwards killed as before stated) were published in 1691, being nothing but college exercises. The others are, De la Grandeur et de la Figure de la Terre,' Paris, 1720; and 'Élémens d'Astronomie,' Paris, 1740.

The first of these two works (a suite to the 'Mem. Acad. Sci.' for 1719) contains the account of the continuation of Picard's arc of the meridian, begun by Dominic Cassini and La Hire in 1680, and recommenced by Dominic and James Cassini in 1700. On the results of this measurement Dominic Cassini concluded that the earth was a spheroid elongated towards the poles, contrary both to theory and other observations. Much discussion was excited at the time. The second work is an elementary treatise, which seems intended to explain his own and his father's astronomy. It is accompanied by a volume of tables, which must be considered as the joint work of the father and son. This collection was republished when the original edition became scarce, but with so many errors of press as to diminish its value materially. The correct edition is that of the Imprimerie Royale, Paris, with the fleur-de-lys in the title-page. From this work we see that James Cassini seems biassed, which is no great matter of surprise, in favour of his father, even to the extent of declaring that the hypothesis of the successive propagation of light, which all the world knew to belong to Roemer, was in fact started, examined, and rejected by Dominic Cassini. He cites the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences,' which when examined by Delambre were found to contain nothing in support of the assertion, but showed very distinctly that Cassini and Roemer were in controversy upon the subject, and that nothing but the rejection of the hypothesis now known by the name of Roemer appears to have belonged to Dominic Cassini. It appears also that

James Cassini was rather Copernican in his notions, but not very strongly determined; that he knew nothing, or next to nothing, of the system and writings of Newton (Principia,' 1687; J. Cassini's Astronomy,' 1740), which he cites in two places-once to endeavour to explain the acceleration of Jupiter's motion, in another for observations of a comet. He knows nothing of Bradley's discovery of aberration (1727-28); but Delambre has forgotten when he adds that he knew nothing of that of nutation, which was not published till 1747. He appears to be, like his father, a follower of Descartes, and also, like him, to prefer graphical methods to calculation. His ideas upon the theory of comets would have been much the better for the study of Newton. Nevertheless, as an observer, J. Cassini was distinguished. His determinations of the times of revolution of the five satellites of Saturn then known are very exact: he first observed the inclination of the orbit of the fifth (now the seventh) of them. He improved the methods and tables of refraction; determined very nearly the variation of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the length of the year by comparison of a large number of equinoxes of his own and others. He left also a great number of good observations. Nevertheless, it is but justice to Picard and Roemer to remember, that both of the Cassinis put together, distinguished as they were, did absolutely nothing which can now bring them to the daily remembrance of the astronomer, though their fame has surpassed that of the re-inventor of the micrometer, and the inventor of the transit instrument.

CÆSAR FRANCIS CASSINI, son of James, was born at Paris, June 17, 1714. He is generally known by the name of Cassini de Thury, having been the first to take a territorial appellation from the estate acquired by his father or grandfather. He accompanied his father during his geodesical operations in 1733, and was received member of the Academy at the age of 21. He succeeded his father as director of the observatory and as maître des comptes, and died September 4, 1784, of small-pox. His most remarkable labour is the large triangulation of France, published in 1744, under the title of La Méridienne, &c., verifiée, &c.,' Paris. He nearly completed the large map of France, of which his son presented 124 sheets to the National Assembly in 1789. He made a long succession of observations at the observatory; but these, though they would have done credit to Dominic Cassini, were too late of their kind. The time was past in which a descendant of the first two Cassinis could compete with the rest of the world by his hereditary means only. We must refer to Lalande's Bibliographie' for a list of his writings, and to Delambre ('Histoire de l'Astronomie xviii. Siècle ') for detail upon his astronomical observations.

JOHN DOMINIC CASSINI, son of Cassini de Thury, and most commonly known by his title of Count, was born at Paris June 30, 1747, and died in the same city October 18, 1845. He is the first of his family who decidedly adopted the system of Newton, though the same may perhaps be said of Cassini de Thury, from some isolated passages in his writings. He was elected member of the Academy in 1770, in which year he published the account of a voyage made by order of the king for trial of the chronometers of Le Roy. He was employed in 1787 with Méchain and Legendre in the operations for the junction of the observatories of Paris and Greenwich by a chain of triangles. He made repeated endeavours to induce the government to re-establish the observatory upon a new footing and with large instruments. The National Convention, apparently with the desire to force him to resign, resolved in 1793 that the observatory should be placed no longer under the control of one person, but of four, who should take annual duty in rotation. Of the four the Count Cassini was one, and the other three were his own pupils. To this he refused to submit, and resigned his charge September 6, 1793. He received an order to quit the observatory in twenty-four hours, and in the following year was imprisoned for seven months. From that time he abandoned astronomy entirely, refusing either to take part in the great survey, or to belong to the Bureau des Longitudes, or to the Institute, though he entered the latter body under the empire. He fixed himself on his own estate, and devoted himself to the duties of the Conseil of his department.

ALEXANDER GABRIEL CASSINI, his son, the fifth of the name, was born at Paris May 9, 1781, and began an astronomical career at a very early age, but soon relinquished this pursuit for that of botany. He was a judge of the Cour Royale, and died of the cholera at Paris, April 16, 1832.

We have thus the history of the occupation of an observatory by the members of one family for 122 years, and in spite of the deserved reputation of all the observers in question for talent and assiduity, it must be asserted that the here litary system did not succeed. Delambre remarks with some bitterness, that during the whole of the reign of the Cassinis not "one little catalogue of stars" issued from the rational observatory. Picard had proposed the erection of large instruments, and the observation of right ascensions and declinations. To this Dominic Cassini was opposed, and in the usual course of things such an error would have lasted for his life, and would have been repaired by his successor. But when the first Cassini was followed by a second and a third wedded to the ideas of their common ancestor, there could be no improvement; and the consequence is that the observatory of Greenwich, for the same period, bears away the palm from that of Paris in actual use to astronomy. Had the National Convention adopted the sound ideas of Count Cassini the case might have been altered. The errors of his predecessors appeared to be fully known

to him, and had he been allowed to rectify them, it is probable that the fifth Cassini would not have abandoned the career of his ancestors; and we might have seen the observatory of Paris, such as it has been since the accession of Napoleon, still in the hands of the distinguished family who had connected their name with all its previous history. CASSIODO'RUS MAGNUS (or, as some call him, MARCUS) AURELIUS, who lived in the sixth century, was a man of letters, an historian, and a statesman. He was born at Scylacium, in the country of the Bruttii, probably about the year 470, though some date his birth ten years later. His father, also named Cassiodorus, was high in office under Odoacer and Theodoric; and he himself was early introduced to public life under Odoacer, and obtained the confidence of Theodoric, under whom he filled the offices of secretary and quæstor. By Theodoric's successors he was appointed master of the offices and prætorian prefect. Under the reign of Vitiges, about the age of 70, he retired from the world, and founded the monastery of Viviers, in Calabria, where he lived nearly to the age of 100 in devotional retirement, enlivened by the exercise of his mechanical ingenuity in the construction of water-clocks, dials, &c., the collection of a valuable library, and composition. He composed a history of the Goths in twelve books, which is only extant in the abridgment of Joruandes; and he caused the ecclesiastical histories of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, to be translated into Latin by Epiphanes, under the title of Historia Tripartita.' Twelve books of his letters are extant: the first ten consist of instructions relating to the service, and written in the name of Theodoric, and his successors, Amalasontha, Athalaric, Theodatus, and Vitiges; the last two consist of similar papers written in his own name. They extend from the year 509 to 539. He also composed a treatise De Artibus ac Disciplinis Liberalium Literarum,' upon grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy; a treatise on orthography, an exposition of the psalms, and other religious works. He enjoyed a high reputation among his contemporaries for learning, eloquence, and talent; but his Latin is impure, and his style full of the conceits of the age. His last work, 'De Orthographia,' he states in his preface to have been written in his 93rd year. The best edition of his works is that of Garet, Rouen, 1679, in 2 vols. fol., reprinted at Venice; which contains the abridgment of Jornandes and the Historia Tripartata,' with a life prefixed. There is also a life of Cassiodorus in French, by Sainte-Marthe. Paris, 1690. 12mo. As to the character of Cassiodorus, and the literature of his age, the reader may consult Schlosser, Universal Historische Uebersicht,' &c. iii. 4.

CA'SSIUS, AVI'DIUS, was, according to Dion Cassius, a native of Cyrrhus in Syria, and the son of a rhetorician, Heliodorus, who was præfect of Egypt in the joint reign of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aur lius. Cassius served in the Parthian wars (A.D. 162 or 165) under Lucius Verus, in which he defeated Vologesus, and took Seleuceia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris. He also served on the Danube, probably about 166. He was subsequently appointed governor of Syria, and in 170 he went to Egypt to suppress an insurrection in the lower country which was excited by some fanatics. He succeeded in putting an end to the rebellion; but a few years after (in 175) he himself rebelled against the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and proclaimed himself Imperator in the East. Cassius was assassinated in a few months, and his head was carried to Aurelius. The humane emperor lamented his death, and declared that he wished Cassius alive that he might upbraid him for his ingratitude. The family and children of Cassius were spared, but it is said that Commodus the son of Aurelius burnt alive all the then surviving members of the family of Cassius, on the pretence of a fresh conspiracy.

Dion Cassius, who loved a tale of scandal, says that Faustina the wife of Aurelius, being apprehensive that her husband would not live long, and considering the youth of her son Commodus, attempted to secure the interests of herself and her family by corresponding with Avidius Cassius, and urging him to proclaim himself emperor whenever he heard of the death of Aurelius, and take her for his wife. It is said that there was a report of the death of Aurelius, and that this was the immediate occasion of Cassius proclaiming himself emperor. It is also said that he was himself the author of the report of the death of Aurelius. The letters between Aurelius and his wife Faustina on the occasion of the rebellion of Cassius are probably not genuine. Vulcatius attempts to show from these letters that Faustina was not privy to the design of Cassius.

(Vulcatius Gallicanus, Avidius Cassius; Dion Cassius, lib. lxxi.; Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs, vol. ii.) CA'SSIUS, CAIUS LONGINUS, appears in history for the first time as the quæstor of Crassus, in the unfortunate campaign against the Parthians, B.C. 53. He foresaw the consequences of the expedition into Mesopotamia, and warned his general against it, but without effect. He commanded a wing of the Roman ariny in the battle where they were defeated; and in the retreat from Carrhæ, discovering the treachery of the guides, he took his own course with 500 horse, whom he conducted alone out of that army safely back into Syria. Succeeding to the command of that province, he held out Antioch against the Parthians, inflicted a signal defeat upon their troops retiring from Antigonia, anu drove them, for a time, across the Euphrates. Upon the arrival of the proconsul Bibulus, B.C. 51, Cassius returned to Rome, having acquired great credit by his conduct.

A break occurs in his history, until, after the battle of Pharsalia, B.C. 48, when we find him in Pompey's service, commanding a fleet in the Hellespont. There he had the opportunity of ending the war by taking Cæsar prisoner, who fell in his way accompanied by a very few ships; but instead of doing so, by some strange indiscretion or treachery, he obeyed Cæsar's summons to surrender, and passed over to his side. Again we hear no more of him until the conspiracy against the dictator's life, in which he was a principal; and he was chiefly instrumental in drawing M. J. Brutus, whose sister he had married, into the plot. He had shared in Cæsar's favours, having been appointed by him to a prætorship, and to the command of Syria. Of the latter Antony endeavoured to deprive him, and procured a vote of the people to transfer it to Dolabella. Cassius, who had passed into Greece with Brutus, no sooner heard of this than he hastened into Asia, and speedily collected forces, with which he mastered Syria, Phoenicia, and Judæa; and he was on the point of invading Egypt, when letters from Brutus summoned him to return towards Europe, to make head against the triumviri. After conquering and plundering Rhodes (B.C. 42), he joined Brutus at Sardis, and the united army marching through Thrace into Macedonia, encountered Antony and Octavianus in the plain of Philippi. Cassius wished to avoid a battle as long as possible, being aware that the enemy must soon become straitened for provisions. But Brutus was eager to fight, and as the soldiery also began to murmur at what they called the cowardice of their generals, Cassius was obliged to yield. In the battle he commanded the left wing, and was opposed to Antony. Brutus in the right broke the troops of Octavianus, and drove them off the field; but pursuing his advantage too far, he exposed the flank of Cassius, who was then taken at disadvantage by his able autagonist, and compelled to quit the field. Thinking that all was lost, he put an end to his life. On hearing of his death, Brutus honoured him with the appellation of the "last of the Romans."

Cassius was esteemed one of the best generals of the age; his private character was good, though his temper was stern, and he professed a warm attachment to the republican cause. He has not escaped the imputation of being influenced by private enmity in his hostility to Cæsar; and the abrupt way in which he abandoned Pompey's cause is calculated to excite suspicions unfavourable to his character. In his philosophical opinions, he belonged to the Epicureans. See Cicero, 'Ep. ad Div.' xv. 19.

CASSIVELLAUNUS. [BRITANNIA, in GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION.] CASTAGNO, ANDREA DEL, a distinguished Fiorentine painter, sometimes called the Infamous, was born at Castagno in Mugello, near Florence, about the year 1406, and died aged about seventy four. He was contemporary with Cosimo Roselli and Masaccio, and painted in a style which in some respects resembled the styles of both masters, but he always remained far behind Masaccio, though he survived him many years. He was the first Florentine painter to adopt the new method of oil painting, which he learnt from Domenico Veneziano, and whom, after he had mastered the secret, he basely murdered. [VENEZIANO, DOMENICO.] Very few of Castagno's works still remain: there are three in the gallery of the academy of Florence, of which 'St. Jerome in the Desert' is a work of great merit for its period; there are also two or three of those noticed by Vasari, in religious buildings of Florence. In 1478, the Pazzi and other conspirators concerned in the murder of Giuliano de' Medici, were all painted by Castagno hanging by the feet on the façade of the palace of the Podestà; they were done with such ability, and in such a variety of attitudes, that Castagno was thenceforth called Andrea degli Impiccati (of the hanged). It was his best work, but it has long since perished. (Vasari, Vite de' Pittori, &c.; Baldinucci, Notizie dei Professori del Disegno, &c.)

CASTALIO'N or CHASTEILLON, SEBASTIAN, was born in Dauphiné, some say in Savoy, about 1515. He applied early to the ancient languages, and became a great proficient in Greek and Hebrew. Being at Strasbourg in 1540-1, he made the acquaintance of John Calvin, who invited him to Geneva, and had him appointed to a chair in the college of that city. After two or three years, Castalion having become obnoxious to Calvin on account of some of his opinions, which were not in accordance with Calvinistic orthodoxy, especially on the subject of predestination, left Geneva for Basel, where he employed himself in teaching Greek and in writing several works, chiefly on Scriptural subjects. He wrote Psalterium reliquaque sacrarum Literarum Carmina et Precationes,' 1547, with notes; Jonas Propheta, heroico carmine Latino descriptus;' 'Dialogorum Sacrorum ad linguam et mores puerorum formandos, libri iv.' This last work has been translated into English by Dr. Bellamy, under the title, 'Youth's Scripture Remembrancer, or Select Sacred Stories by way of familiar Dialogues, in Latin and English, with a short Application of each Story,' London, 1743. He also published a version in Latin verse of the Sibylline Books, with notes, and a Latin translation of the 'Dialogues' of Bernardino Ochino. Before he left Geneva he had undertaken a complete Latin version of the Bible from the Hebrew and Greek, which he completed at Basel, where it was published in 1551, and dedicated to Edward VI. of England. He published a French version of the same in 1555. Castalion's versions were made the subject of much conflicting criticism, His Latin Bible went through several editions; that of Leipzig, 1697, contains also his Delineatio

Reipublicæ Judaicæ ex Josepho;' 'Defensio versionis Novi Foederis contra Th. Bezam;' and 'Nota prolixior in cap. ix. Epistolæ ad Romanos.' He carried on an epistolary controversy with Calvin and Beza, who assailed him with many charges, and even urged, though ineffectually, the magistrates of Basel to drive him away. He passed his latter years at Basel in great poverty, and died in 1563, leaving a numerous family in want. He was buried in the cathedral, through the exertions of three Polish gentlemen who had been his pupils. In his latter years he was in the habit of resorting to the banks of the Rhine or of the Birs when swollen, where with a crook he endeavoured to catch the pieces of wood and branches of trees which the river carried along, in order to procure fuel for his family. This was made the subject of a charge by Calvin, as if he had been guilty of pilfering. In 1562 Castalion published his eloquent 'Defensio suarum Translationum Bibliorum et maxime Novi Fœderis,' in which he speaks of himself and his works with the frank earnestness of an injured person. His Dialogi IV. de Prædestinatione, Electione, Libero Arbitrio, ao Fide.' were published in 1578 by Faustus Socinus. He has been abu-ed both by Calvinists and Roman Catholics; Arminian critics have been more indulgent to him. He wrote a treatise to prove that magistrates have no right to punish heretics. (Bayle, Dict., ed. 1730, art. Castalion.')

CASTAÑOS, FRANCISCO XAVIER, the most eminent Spanish general in the Peninsular war, was born at Madrid, according to the best Spanish authorities, about 1756. His father, who was a military officer, procured him a captain's commission at the age of twelve, and he remained in the service till he was ninety-six, being then probably the oldest soldier on record. In his early years he was sent with General O'Reilly to the court of Frederick the Great to study the Prussian tactics, and he passed through various grades in the Spanish army without achieving any high reputation till the invasion of Spain by Napoleon I., when he was fortunate enough to strike the first blow of the long series of victories against the French, which terminated in the downfall of their power. On the 22nd of July 1808, eighteen thousand French, commanded by General Dupont, laid down their arms and surrendered to the Spanish army under Castaños, at Baylen. It is stated by Lord Holland, in his 'Reminiscences,' that when the French general delivered his sword to Castaños, he said, "You may well, General, be proud of this day; it is remarkable that I have never lost a pitched battle till now: I, who have been in more than twenty, and gained them all!" "It is the more remarkable," was the Spaniard's quiet reply, "because I never was in one before in my life." The chief merit of the victory has however been ascribed by many to the second in command, Aloys Reding, a Swiss patriot, who, after vaiuly endeavouring to defend his native country against Napoleon, had entered the service of Spain. The effect of this great battle was to drive Joseph Bonaparte from Madrid, and on the 23rd of August Castaños made his triumphal entry into the capital, where on the next day Ferdinand was proclaimed. Later in the same year, in November, Castaños was defeated by the French at Tudela, and he held but a subordinate position to the Duke of Wellington and Marshal Beresford during the remainder of the war, in which he took a share in the battles of Albuera, Salamanca, and Vittoria, particularly the last. In 1815, on the return of Napoleon, he was in command of an army of 80.000 Spaniards, which had already partly advanced into France when the news of the battle of Waterloo arrived. In the year before however he had received some disgusts from the government, which excited the indignation of the Duke of Wellington, his companion-inarms; and in the years which followed he did not hold a prominent position, though he possessed much of the esteem of both parties. Towards the close of his life however his popularity revived, partly perhaps on account of the phenomenon of his great age, and the Duke of Baylen was looked on as the representative of Spanish chivalry. "In spite of his ninety years of age," says Mellado in 1846, "General Castaños, though much bent, still constantly shows himself in the public streets, moving about on foot and in the enjoyment of astonishing health. For some time he has been an almost daily visitor at the royal palace, and has the reputation of being full of sharp and weighty sayings; many of his reputed repartees to King Ferdinand, who was very fond of him, circulating amongst the lower classes." Among other posts of dignity, he held that of one of the guardians of the present Queen of Spain. He died at Madrid, on the 24th of September 1852, ten days only after the decease of the Duke of Wellington, and his remains were honoured with a public funeral.

CASTELLI, BENEDICT, was born at Brescia in 1577, and died at Rome in 1644. He was a Benedictine, and taught mathematics at Pisa, and afterwards at Rome. He is known as having been a defender of the hydrostatical doctrines of Galileo, in his Risposta alle oppossizione,' &c., Florence, 1615. He was also the first who applied the new doctrines of motion to hydraulics, on which subject he is to be considered the earliest writer of the experimental school. In his treatise 'Della Misura dell' Acque Correnti,' Rome, 1638, he explains several phenomena, but was misled by a notion that the velocity of issuing water is proportional to the height of the reservoir, instead of the square root of the height. (Montucla, ii. 201, iii. 679, ‘Biog. Univ.') He left several papers, some of which were published after his death by Cardinal Leopold de' Medici, and others, which were among the manuscripts in the library of St. George at Venice, were printed in

De Motu Aquarum Currentium,' Florence, 1723. A life of Castelli was published at Dresden in 1746.

CA'STI, GIOVAN BATISTA, was born in 1721 in the Roman State. He studied in the seminary of Montefiascone, and afterwards took priest's orders. Little is known of his early life until 1762, when he published I Tré Giuli,' a series of 200 sonnets on the subject of a debt amounting to three giuli, or paoli, a Roman coin worth about fivepence, which the author dsecribes himself as having incurred. His merciless creditor insisted upon immediate payment, which the poet endeavours to put off by all sorts of ingenious devices, by flattery, entreaties, threats, &c. A rich vein of humour and facetiousness runs throughout the whole composition. The Tré Giuli' have been translated into English (London, 1826). In 1765 Casti went to Florence, where by his wit as well as by his real information he found favour with the Grand Duke Leopold and his court. When Joseph II. visited Florence in 1769 he became acquainted with Casti, and invited him to Vienna, where the poet was well received; and he afterwards attended Prince Kaunitz, the prime minister, in several diplomatic missions. In 1778 he went to Russia, where he was introduced to Catharine II., and where he conceived the plan of his 'Poema Tartaro,' which contains a satire on that empress and her court under fictitious names. He afterwards returned to Vienna, where he obtained the situation of Poeta Cesareo, or court poet, vacant by the death of Metastasio in 1782. He there composed some burlesque dramas, among others 'Il Re Teodoro a Venezia,' which was set to music by the great composer Paisiello; and 'La Grotta di Trofonio,' which is a sort of satire upon philosophers. He wrote another opera buffa, in which he parodied the story of Catiline's conspiracy and Cicero's part in that transaction. About the time that the French entered Italy in 1796, Casti left Vienna for Milan, where he showed himself a warm partisan of republicanism. He lived afterwards some time at Florence, and lastly in 1798 he visited Paris, where he remained till his death in February 1803. At Paris he published in 1802 his 'Animali Parlanti,' a poem, which is his chief title to fame. It has been called a satire on courts, but it might be styled as well a satire on political society in general, for the author lashes demagogues as well as courtiers. It has been partly translated and partly imitated by W. Stewart Rose in his Court and Parliament of Beasts,' London, 1819. Casti has much of the humour peculiar to Berni's school [BERNI], of which he may be considered as one of the last specimens, although he rose higher in the choice of his subjects and in the freedom of his allusions. A complete edition of his 'Novelle Galanti' was published in 3 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1804. They are humorous stories in verse, and the subj cts are much after the fashion of Boccaccio's tales, written in a fluent style, but mostly licentious. Casti by this work placed himself among the very few indecent Italian writers of the 18th century.

In

CASTIGLIOʻNE BALDASSA'RRE, was born of a noble family in the State of Mantua in 1478. He studied at Milan under Merula and Demetrius Calchondylas, and afterwards returning to Mantua he entered the service of the Duke Francesco Gonzaga, whom he accompanied in his campaign in South Italy, when Gonzaga led the French army to the conquest of Naples. After the defeat of the French by Gonzalo of Cordova in 1503, Castiglione repaired to Rome, where he attached himself to the court of Guidobaldo di Montefeltro, duke of Urbino, who was a patron of literature. During his residence at Urbino he enjoyed the company of Bembo, Bibbiena, Giuliano de' Medici, and other distinguished men who graced that little court. 1506 he was sent by the duke to England on a mission to Henry VIII, who was pleased with him, and made him a knight. After Duke Guidobaldo's death he followed his successor, Giuseppe Maria della Rovere, in the campaign against the Venetians. When Leo X. ascended the Papal throne in 1513, Castiglione was sent as ambassador to him. Some years afterwards he was recalled to Mantua by his natural sovereign the Duke Gonzaga, was employed by him on several missions, and after some years was sent again to Rome to Pope Clement VIL, who took him into his own service, and appointed him his ambassador to Charles V. While Castiglione was residing at Madrid in this capacity, the news came of the taking and sacking of Rome by the imperial army in 1527. This unexpected catastrophe affected the mind and the health of Castiglione, who became disgusted with courts and politics. Charles V., who valued him, offered him the bishopric of Avila, which he refused. After lingering in Spain another year he died at Toledo in February, 1529.

The principal work of Castiglione is his treatise in the form of a dialogue, 'Del Cortigiano' (Of the Courtier). He wrote it while he was at the court of Urbino, which happened to be then a very favourable specimen of courts. Castiglione specifies all the qualities which an accomplished and intelligent and at the same time honest courtier ought to possess, and the manner in which he ought to use them for the good of his prince. The Cortigiano' has been much and long admired in Italy both for the thoughts and the style, and it still ranks among the classical works of the 16th century. Castiglione wrote also poetry, both Latin and Italian: his 'Lettere,' or correspondence, were published by Serassi in 1769, 2 vols. 4to, with a biography of the author.

*CASTIGLIONE, CARLO-OTTAVIO, Count, was born in 1795, in the city of Milan, and is descended from a family of distinction. He early applied himself to the study of languages, and to the explication