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published at Leipzig in 4 vols. 8vo, 1835, and a second edition in 1842 in 6 vols. 12mo, the two last of which contain Chamisso's life and correspondence, edited by J. E. Hitzig.

CHAMPAGNE, PHILIPPE DE, was born in Brussels in 1602. His parents, who were in middling circumstances, indulged his early taste for painting, and he was placed under masters in his native place. At the age of nineteen he went to Paris, with the intention of passing on to Rome, but he was unable to accomplish his journey, probably from the want of means. He received some assistance in his studies from Fouquière, and afterwards became acquainted with Nicholas Poussin, when that great painter returned from Italy, from whose advice and society he derived great advantage. They painted in company in the Luxembourg. Upon the death of Duchesne, Champagne succeeded to his place as painter to the queen. Richelieu endeavoured to withdraw him from his royal patroness, but Champagne refused his most brilliant offers. He was indeed so scrupulous in his conduct that he never touched a brush on holidays, nor ever painted from the naked figure. He married the daughter of Duchesne, by whom he had a son. He was received into the academy upon its first formation in 1648, and was subsequently its rector. He died in 1674. Champagne laboured with extreme assiduity, and acquired great facility. His drawing is minutely correct, and his colour pleasing; but his design and effect are tame. His portraits are most esteemed, particularly one of Richelieu. His principal works are at Paris, where he spent nearly the whole of his life. *CHAMPOLLION, JEAN-JACQUES, commonly named CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC, to distinguish him from his younger brother, Champollion-le-Jeune, was born in 1778 at Figeac, in the French department of Lot. He at first held an office in the library of Grenoble, capital of the department of Isère, and was afterwards professor of Greek literature in that city. In 1828 he was appointed keeper of the manuscripts in the Royal Library of Paris, an office which he held till 1848. In 1849 he became keeper of the library of the palace of Fontainebleau, and also private librarian to the Emperor Napoleon III. His first publication was a Lettre à M. Fourier sur l'Inscription Grecque du Temple de Denderah en Egypte,' 8vo, Grenoble, 1806, which was followed in 1807 by his 'Antiquités de Grenoble, ou Histoire Ancienne de cette Ville, d'après ses Monuments,' 4to, Grenoble; and in 1809 by Nouvelles Recherches sur les Patois, ou Idiomes Vulgaires de la France,' 8vo. His 'Annales des Lagides, ou Chronologie des Rois Grecs d'Egypte, successeurs d'Alexandre le Grand,' 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1819, reccived the prize of the Académie des Inscriptions. He also republished several charters and other documents appertaining to the history of France in the middle ages. The original manuscripts are preserved in the Royal Library of Paris, and some of them date as far back as the 6th century. One of the most expensive of his publications was 'Les Tournois du Roi Réné, d'après les Manuscripts et les Dessins Originaux de la Bibliothèque Royale,' folio, 1827-28. In these 'Tournaments of King Réné,' of which only 200 copies were printed, he was assisted by M. Motte, the lithographer. In 1842 he published a Notice sur les Manuscripts Autographes de Champollion-le-Jeune, perdus en l'année 1832, et retrouvés in 1840.' He published in the following year an elementary treatise on Archæology, and another on Chronology. He was a contributor to several works published periodically, such as the 'Dictionnaire de la Conversation,' the Magazin Encyclopédique,' the 'Revue Encyclopé. dique,' the 'Bulletin des Sciences Historiques,' and the literary portion of the 'Moniteur.' He also assisted in the preparation and issuing of the 'Documents Historiques' published by the French government, to which he contributed 6 vols. 4to. After the death of Champollion-leJeune he published some of the materials on Egypt, Hieroglyphics, &c., on which his brother had been employed immediately before his death. In 1864 appeared his ' Monographie du palais de Fontainebleau' (fol.). CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS LE-JEUNE, so called to distinguish him from his elder brother, Champollion-Figeac, was born at Figeac, in the department of Lot, December 23, 1790. He studied in the lyceum of Grenoble, and afterwards went to Paris in 1807, where he applied himself to the oriental languages under Langlés and De Sacy, but more especially to the study of the Coptic, and to Egyptian archæology in general. In 1811 he was appointed professor of history in the lyceum of Grenoble, and librarian of the public library. In 1814 he published his first work, 'L'Egypte sous les Pharaons,' 2 vols. 8vo, which is a geographical description of that country under its aucient kings, with a view to fix its divisions, the sites and names of its towns, &c. The work is accompanied by a map. In the preface, alluding to the hieroglyphics on the Egyptian monuments, he says "that it was to be hoped that from these monuments, on which ancient Egypt painted mere material objects, we should be able at last to discover the sounds of its language, and the expression of its thought." In 1821 he published at Grenoble a little work, De l'Écriture Hiéra tique des Anciens Egyptiens,' in which he stated his opinion "that the hieratic characters were merely a modification of the hieroglyphic symbols, which were adopted for the sake of brevity, and as a sort of hieroglyphic short-hand, and were not alphabetical characters as it had been supposed by some; the hieratic characters, as well as the hieroglyphic from which they are derived, being expressive of objects and not of sounds."

In the year following appeared Champollion's letter to M. Dacier,

CHAMPOLLION, JEAN FRANÇOIS.

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the secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres,
"relative à l'alphabet des hiéroglyphes phonétiques employé par les
Egyptiens pour inscrire sur leurs monumens les titres, les noms, et
les surnoms des souverains Grecs et Romains,' Paris, 1822. In this
letter he retracted what he had formerly asserted, in so far that he now
demonstrated what Dr. Young had already stated in November 1819,
in the supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica,' article Egypt,'
namely, that the Egyptians used occasionally hieroglyphic signs as
alphabetical characters on their monuments, to express the names of
foreign sovereigns, Greek and Roman, who ruled over their country.
In the introduction to his next work, 'Précis du Systême Hiérogly-
phique, etc.,' Champollion observes, and his friend Rosellini confirms
it in his biography, that he came to the same conclusion as Dr. Young
contemporaneously with the latter, and by his own investigation; but
this assertion, especially with regard to contemporaneousness, is at
variance with the statements of the Grenoble work already mentioned,
which was published as late as 1821, nearly two years after the publi-
cation of Dr. Young's discovery. However this may be, Champollion
at least improved upon Dr. Young's hint, and deduced a phonetic
alphabet, applicable not only to the names and titles of foreign sove-
reigns, but also to those of the native sovereigns and of the divinities
of ancient Egypt. By comparing Champollion's alphabet with Dr.
Young's, the difference between the two is apparent. Champollion
used the word phonetic to express characters denoting sounds, a term
which had been used long before him by Zoega in the same sense in
his work on 'Obelisks.' In his 'Précis du Systême Hiéroglyphique
des Anciens Egyptiens, or Recherches sur les Elémens premiers de
cette Ecriture Sacrée, sur leurs diverses combinaisons et sur les rap-
ports de ce Systême avec les autres Méthodes Graphiques Egyptiennes,'
Paris, 1824, he asserted, 1, "that his phonetic alphabet is applicable
to all the royal names of the most ancient epochs; 2, that the ancient
Egyptians employed at all epochs phonetic hieroglyphics to represent
alphabetically the sounds of their spoken language; 3, that all hiero-
glyphic inscriptions are in a great measure composed of signs purely
alphabetical, and such as are determined in his phonetic alphabet."
It seems almost superfluous to remark that the two last positions are
mere assertions, unsupported by proof, as any one who will take the
pains to examine attentively Champollion's works will easily see.
Klaproth, in his Observations Critiques sur l'Alphabet Hiéro-
glyphique découvert par M. Champollion-le-Jeune,' which precede his
Collection d'Antiquités Egyptiennes,' Paris, 1829, has in our opinion
completely demolished Champollion's general theory, and reduced his
discovery to its proper limits. Klaproth concludes his critical
observations with the following corollaries:-1. "That Champollion
appears to have had no fixed basis for his system, as he has repeatedly
altered the meaning of his characters, both phonetic and symbolic, as
appears from comparing the alphabet of the second edition of his
'Précis,' 1827, with that of the first. 2. That although he has
explained proper names and some particles of speech, yet he has never
been able to read satisfactorily one connected sentence of hiero-
glyphic writing, nor three or four consecutive words of the demotic
characters of the Rosetta stone. 3. That he assumes against all
probability that the Coptic language, which is a mixed dialect, and
known to us in a very imperfect state, is the language that was spoken
by the Egyptians under the Pharaohs; its sounds, according to him,
being represented by the phonetic signs. 4. That it appears that the
names of the kings, and the ordinary epithets attached to them, are
written alphabetically in the cartouches or frames; but that besides
these every king has another title of honour, or prænomen, which
fills up another cartouche, and which seems composed partly of
alphabetic and partly of symbolic characters, which last have hitherto
been only explained by conjecture." Besides these and other general
arguments against Champollion's system, for which we refer to
Klaproth's work, Klaproth charges Champollion with having com-
pletely altered several cartouches of the table of Abydos to make
them suit his hypothesis. And further, he does not forget to remind
us that Champollion, while passing through Aix on his way to Egypt
in 1828, saw a fine papyrus belonging to Mr. Sallier, written in demotic
characters, which he gravely pronounced to be "a history of the
campaigns of Sesostris Ramses, written in the ninth year of that
monarch's reign by his bard and friend." This assertion was published
as a great discovery by the Academy of Sciences of Aix, and the report
was inserted in Ferussac's 'Bulletin Universel.'

During Champollion's visit to Turin in 1824, to examine the Egyptian Museum of that city, he wrote two letters to the Duke of Blacas d'Aulps, who had become his patron at the French court. In these letters he explains the names and titles of many of the Pharaohs written upon the monuments in the Turin collection, and he undertakes to class them into dynasties, with the assistance of Manethon. ('Lettres à M. le Duc de Blacas d'Aulps, relatives au Musée Royal Egyptien de Turin,' Paris, 1824-25.) His work on the Egyptian gods came out in parts, but has never been completed Panthéon Egyptien, ou Collection des Personnages Mythologiques de l'ancienne Egypte, d'après les Monumens, avec un texte explicatif.' Charles X. having determined to purchase a valuable collection of Egyptian antiquities, just arrived at Leghorn, for the museum at Paris, Champollion was appointed, through the Duke of Blacas, to proceed to Italy for the purpose of examining and valuing them. From Leghorn he

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proceeded to Rome and Naples, in the company of Roselliui. On his return to Paris he was named Director of the Egyptian Museum at the Louvre, of which he published a description Notice descriptive des Monumens Egyptiens du Musée Charles X.,' 1827. In 1828 the King of France appointed a scientific expedition to proceed to Egypt, in order to examine the monuments of that country, under Champollion's direction. At the same time the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, Leopold II., appointed a similar expedition for the same object, at the head of which he placed Rosellini, Champollion's friend. The two expeditions, consisting of six Frenchmen and six Tuscans, sailed together from Toulon, and arrived at Alexandria in August 1828. Champollion remained in Egypt till the end of 1829, during which time he wrote the letters which are published under the title of 'Lettres écrites d'Egypte et de Nubie en 1828-9,' 8vo, Paris, 1833. On his return to France, in 1830, he was made a member of the Institute, and subsequently appointed, by Louis Philippe, Professor of Egyptian Antiquities in the College of France. It was agreed between the French and Tuscan governments that the result of the observations of the two expeditions should be published together in one work, in French and Italian, under the direction of Champollion and Rosellini, Monumens de l'Egypte et de la Nubie, considérés par rapport à l'Histoire, la Religion, et les Usages Civils et Domestiques de l'Ancienne Egypte,' &c. The work began to appear in parts in 1832. In the letter-press accompanying this publication, Rosellini has not only adopted the general system of Champollion, but has carried it much farther than his friend. A sharp criticism upon it by Cataldo Jannelli was published in No. 19 of the 'Progresso,' a Neapolitan journal, Naples, 1835. While Champollion was preparing the first part of the new work for the press, he was attacked by a paralytic fit, and died at Paris on the 5th of March 1832.

He

Champollion's merits as a laborious student of Egyptian archæology are undeniable; but his judgment seems not to have been sound, his deductions from his premises not always correct, and his learning (except on Egyptian antiquities) neither extensive nor exact. corrected Dr. Young's first crude notions as to the phonetic symbols, and considerably extended the number of known signs; and this may perhaps lead to further results. Had he lived longer he might have modified some of his former assertions, and entered perhaps upon a safer path of investigation. For the controversy concerning the general application of the phonetic alphabet, see vol ii. of the Egyptian Antiquities' of the British Museum, published in the 'Library of Entertaining Knowledge,' ch. x., on the 'Rosetta Stone,' where the subject is fully investigated. See also Professor Kosegarten, 'De prisca Ægyptiorum Literatura Commentatio,' 4to, 1828; Greppo's Essay on the Hieroglyphic System of Champollion,' translated by Stuart, Boston, 1830. Rosellini wrote a biographical notice of Champollion in the Florence Antologia' for April 1832. Champollion made a Coptic Grammar and Dictionary, which remained unpublished at his death, but which was surreptitiously published at Rome in 1842. The manuscripts of Champollion were purchased by the French government in 1833, with a view to their publication. The editing of them was confided to M. Chompollion Figeac, and they appeared in 1834-48. A monument was erected by the town-council to the memory of Champollion in the principal place of his native town. His bust was placed in the Museum of Versailles by order of Louis Philippe, and copies of it were made by order of the Minister of the Interior for the town of Figeac, the Museum of Grenoble, and the library of the Institute. CHANDLER, DR. RICHARD, was born at Elson in Hampshire, in 1738, studied at Winchester School, and afterwards entered Queen's College, Oxford, in May 1755. Soon after taking his Bachelor's degree (in 1759) he published Elegiaca Græca,' containing the frag. ments of Tyrtæus, Simonides, Meleager, Alcæus, &c., with notes. In 1763 he edited the splendid work 'Marmora Oxoniensia.' In 1764 he was sent by the Dilettanti Society to travel into Asia Minor and Greece, in company with Revett the architect and Pars the painter. They spent more than a year in Asia Minor; and in 1765 they proceeded to Athens, and passed another year in examining Attica and the Peloponnesus. They returned to England in November 1766. The result of their labours, the Ionian Antiquities, or Ruins of Magnificent and Famous Buildings in Ionia,' 2 vols. folio, was published in London in 1769. In 1774 Chandler published 'Inscriptiones Antiquæ pleræque nondum editæ in Asia Minori et Græcia, præsertim Athenis collectæ, fol., Oxford. His 'Travels in Asia Minor,' 4to, 1775, and 'Travels in Greece,' 4to, 1776, still rank among the best descriptions of those countries. There is a French translation (Paris, 1806) of the "Travels in Asia Minor and in Greece,' with notes, by J. P. Servois and Barbié du Bocage. These two works have been since republished together, by the Rev. R. Churton, with Revett's remarks, and a biography of Dr. Chandler, 2 vols. 8vo, 1835. In 1773 Chandler took the degree of D.D.; and in 1779 he obtained the living of East Worldham and West Tisted, Hants. In 1785 he married, and afterwards travelled in Switzerland and Italy. In 1800 he was made rector of Tylehurst in Berkshire, when he published his History of Ilium, or Troy, including the adjacent country and the opposite coast of the Chersonesus,' 4 to, London, 1802, in which he refuted Bryant's assertion "that the Trojan war was a fiction, and that no such a city as Troy in Phrygia ever existed;" and he vindicated the veracity of Homer, and especially the truth of his local descriptions. Dr. Chandler died in

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February 1810, in his seventy-second year. He left in manuscript, The Life of William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester, Lord High Chancellor of England in the reign of Henry VI., and Founder of Magdalen College,' which was published in 8vo, London, 1811. * CHANGARNIER, NICOLAS-ANNE-THÉODULE, the recent confidant, and to some extent the rival of Louis Napoleon, was born at Autun, on the 26th of April 1793. In early life, he was a strong partisan of the legitimist cause, having served in the king's bodyguard, which he entered as a private, January 10, 1815. In 1821 he was transferred to the 60th regiment of the line, and accompanied the Duke of Angoulême to Spain two years afterwards. Already, in that campaign, the brilliant courage and the capacity of the young soldier drew attention upon him.

After the revolution of July in 1830, he went as captain of the 2nd Léger to Algeria; where his great activity and constant success, caused him to be sent on many perilous expeditions, in all of which his genius for war gave so much tone and dignity to his enterprises, that he was in reality the general, and his small troop an army. He soon became a chef-de-bataillon, and the first unsuccessful attempt upon Constantine, which overshadowed the fame of his brother officers, gave new life to that of Changarnier. Having reached Mansourah (November 24, 1836), at the moment when the 59th and 63rd were in full retreat, Changarnier, with his battalion, reduced to 300 men, took up the ground between the rest of their army and the main body of the enemy. Halting his men, and forming them into a square, he said to them: "Come, lads, let us look those fellows in the face; they are 6000, we are 300, so the game is equal." Inspirited by the cool decision of their leader, his brave followers met the enemy with intrepid firmness, and drove them back with considerable slaughter. During the conflict a ball reached him in the middle of his square. He was made lieutenant-colonel of the 10th line for his conduct in this affair; then a colonel in 1838.

Constantly in the field, his history and that of the French war in Algeria are one. On the 4th of April 1841, when Medeyah was provisioned, General Changarnier's brigade was fiercely attacked in the Bois des Oliviers, both in flank and rear, by the cavalry and regular battalions of Abd-el-Kader. Struck on the shoulder, and supposed to be mortally wounded, he refused to quit the field; but alighting a moment, had the ball extracted, again led his column, and cut his way into the town. In November of the same year, he cleared the country about Boufarick of several wild tribes, taking many prisoners, and an immense herd of cattle.

His famous expedition in the mountains of Ouarencenes, in company with the Duke of Aumale, largely contributed to the establishment of the French supremacy in Algeria. On the 9th of April 1843 he received the appointment of lieutenant-general. He was sent on almost every expedition, and took part in almost every engagement. Clausel, Vallée, Bugeaud, and the Orléans' princes, spoke of him in the same terms of admiration. His own character lent a greatness to occasions which in themselves were small.

In 1843 he drew a circle round the country of the Beni-Menacer, where the Emir was once more raising the spirit of revolt, and subdued those warlike mountaineers. With this operation the long series of his exploits in Africa came to a close; and the general returned to France, after a most arduous service of thirteen years. In the month of September 1847, the Duke of Aumale having succeeded Marshal Bugeaud in the government of Algeria, became anxious to avail himself of the talents of his former comrade, and induced him to accept the command of the army in Algiers. The events which followed in February 1848 removed the prince from that province, but before he left the country he committed the charge of government, provisionally, to the general. On the arrival of General Cavaignac soon after, Changarnier delivered to the army an able address on the value and duty of obedience to the state, and returned to France.

He was now one of the Triumvirate of great names in France, and in May 1848 was appointed governor-general of Algeria, in the room of Cavaignac, whose presence had been deemed indispensable in the capital. On the 13th of June 1849, it was his good fortune to suppress, or rather to prevent, an insurrection in Paris by the strength and rapidity of bis preparations. On the election of the president of the French republic, Changarnier was appointed Commander of the First Military Division, and all the military power of the metropolis centred in his hands. But this power, and the prestige of his military fame, gave umbrage to Louis Napoleon, who abolished his command, and reduced him to the state of a private citizen. On the 2nd of December 1851 he was arrested, and exiled soon after. He has since resided chiefly at Brussels.

(Dictionnaire de Conversation; History of General Changarnier, by Fr***; Corkran, History of the National Assembly.)

CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, D.D., was the son of an eminent merchant of Newport, Rhode Island, United States, where he was born on the 12th of April, 1780. He was educated at Harvard College, and his first views are said to have been directed to the medical profession; but he was eventually induced by the lectures or advice of the Hollis professor of divinity to enter the ministry in the Unitarian communion, which however was not then distinguished in the United States from what is commonly called orthodox Christianity by

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so clear a line as now. He took his degree in 1798, and soon after went to Virginia, and spent some time there as a teacher; but in 1803 he was appointed to the office in which he remained for the rest of his life-that of pastor of the Federal-street congregation in Boston. At this time he was considered to lean to what are called evangelical views; and several of the neighbouring clergymen of other persuasions used occasionally to preach from his pulpit. His own preaching early drew attention by its superior polish and eloquence; but not, it would appear, to any remarkable degree till he had officiated for some years, when his theology assumed a more decided character, and his congregation, having considerably increased, built him a larger church, and in 1824 gave him a colleague, the Rev. Mr. Gannett. What first brought him into general notice in his own country were several sermons which he published during the war of 1812. These were followed by a number of papers in the Christian Disciple,' the ⚫ Christian Examiner,' and perhaps other Boston reviews or magazines. In England however Dr. Channing's name was not much heard of till after the appearance of his 'Remarks on the Character and Writings of John Milton,' originally published in the form of a review of the Treatise of Christian Doctrine' in the Christian Examiner' for 1826. In the same publication for 1829 appeared his 'Remarks on the Life and Character of Napoleon Bonaparte,' as a review of Scott's 'Life of Napoleon.' In 1830 a collection of Channing's writings was published in a royal 8vo volume at Boston, under the title of 'Reviews, Discourses, and Miscellanies.' He continued to produce occasional tracts, discourses, and other writings during the remainder of his life, of which several subsequent collections were formed, both in America and in England; but the most complete we believe is that published at Glasgow in 6 vols. 8vo, of which the first five were brought out in 1840, with the sanction and assistance of Dr. Channing himself, and the sixth in 1844 under the authority of his son, Mr. W. F. Channing. The subjects principally treated of, besides those already mentioned, are war, temperance, public education, the church, and especially the abolition of negro slavery, of which measure Channing was one of the warmest advocates. His death took place at Burlington, Vermont, cn the 2nd of October 1842.

Channing is one of the most striking writers America has produced; and his works, besides their attractions of style, are all animated by a pure and lofty moral spirit. His eloquence however, though often imposing, has not much nature or real fire; its splendour is mostly verbal; the thoughts are true and just, rather than new or profound; it is exciting on a first perusal, but will hardly bear a second. Nothing that he has written therefore has much chance of long retaining its reputation; there is too little in it of the spirit of life; too little of anything that can be called its own, and that is not to be found else where. Both in its rhetorical character however and in its strain of sentiment it was well calculated to produce an immediate effect. CHANTREY, SIR FRANCIS, was born on the 7th of April 1782, at Norton, in Derbyshire, where his father was a farmer. Chantrey's father wished to make an attorney of him, but he preferred being an artist, and his predilection was for carving. He was accordingly bound for three years to a carver at Sheffield; but during the time of his apprenticeship he found that it was a style of work which afforded little scope for his true love for art, and he therefore turned his attention to modelling in clay. He tried his fortune as a modeller, first in Dublin, then in Edinburgh, and lastly in London. In London, Nollekeus was greatly instrumental in promoting Chantrey's fortunes. The young sculptor (he was then four-and-twenty) sent a bust of J. R. Smith to the exhibition of the Royal Academy, which, in the disposition of the works for exhibition, attracted the admiration of Nollekens, who said-"It is a splendid work; let the man be known: remove one of my busts, and put this in its place." Nollekens himself did all that was in his power to make him known; but Chantrey, having once found the opportunity of making himself known, required thenceforth no other recommendation than his busts to ensure himself full employment in that department of art. In 1816 he was chosen an Associate, and in 1818 a Member, of the Royal Academy. In the following year (1819) he paid his first visit to Italy, where he was elected a member of the academies of Rome and Florence.

In the career of a uniformly successful artist there are few incidents to record: Chantrey's career for the last twenty years of his life, as a monumental sculptor, was unrivalled; beyond this sphere however he did not range. He was knighted by the queen in 1837, at which period he was already a sufferer from disease of the heart, and from this time he finished few works himself: their completion was entrusted to his able assistant Mr. Weekes. Of his poetic works, which are not many, few were executed from his own designs: the statue of Lady Louisa Russell, daughter of the late Duke of Bedford, at Woburn Abbey, and the 'Sleeping Children,' in the cathedral of Lichfield, his best sepulchral monument, were both executed from the designs of Stothard: the first is a child on tiptoe, pressing a dove to her bosom; the second is a monument to two children of the late W. Robinson, Esq. There are also in Woburn Abbey two reliefs from Homer by Chantreythe 'Parting of Hector and Andromache,' and 'Penelope with the bow of Ulysses; but they are calculated rather to detract from his reputation, or, in other words, are evidence that poetic art was beyond his sphere. They are engraved in plates xxix. and xxx. of the Outline Engravings and Descriptions of the Woburn Abbey Marbles.'

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As a monumental sculptor Chantrey will rank high: some of his statues in this branch of art are among the finest specimens of their class. One of his best works is the bronze statue of William Pitt, in Hanover-square, London. There are also marble statues by him, in Westminster Abbey, of Francis Horner, Sir T. S. Raffles, George Canning, Rev. E. F. Sutton, and Sir John Malcolm. Among his principal works are also statues of Washington, in the state-house at Boston, United States; Spencer Percival, in All Saints' Church, Northampton; James Watt, in the church of Aston, near Birmingham; Sir Edward Hyde East and Bishop Heber, at Calcutta; Canning, in the town-hall of Liverpool; Mountstewart Elphinstone and Sir Charles Forbes, at Bombay; Dr. Ryder, bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, in Lichfield Cathedral; and Dr. Bathurst, bishop of Norwich, in Norwich Cathedral. His busts are extremely numerous; his sitters were a large proportion of the persons of rank and distinction of his time. He executed also a few equestrian statues in bronze, but their postures are formal and want vigour; the horses are particularly inanimate in the body and limbs. His last work of this class, the Wellington testimonial, now placed before the Royal Exchange, London, was executed nearly entirely by Mr. Weekes.

Though deservedly eminent in his style, and certainly one of the best sculptors of his time, Chantrey cannot be reckoned among great sculptors: his busts display no extraordinary powers of conception or of modelling, and the best of his statues are but simple draped figures in repose, well-proportioned, and with much characteristic expression; but they are not superior to similar works by many sculptors of less renown. In the treatment of his portraits however he always disposed the unpicturesque costume of the present day with the greatest judg ment and with the least possible injury to the proportions of the human figure; he never left them stiff or stony, as they are on many of the statues in St. Paul's Cathedral, executed by some of Chantrey's contemporaries and immediate predecessors.

Chantrey had no children or very near relations, and he left the reversion of a portion of his property, at the death or second marriage of his wife, at the disposal, under certain restrictions, of the president and council of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, for the promotion of British Fine Art in painting and sculpture, including an annuity of 300l. for the president and 50l. for the secretary, payable on the 1st of January in every year. The interest of the residue is to be laid out in the purchase of works of Fine Art of the highest merit in painting and sculpture that can be obtained, either already executed or which may hereafter be executed by artists of any nation, provided such artists shall have actually resided in Great Britain during the executing and completing of such works; it being his express direction that no work of art shall be purchased unless it shall have been executed within the shores of Great Britain: and further, that in making such purchases, the works of the highest merit shall be chosen, solely with regard to their intrinsic merit, and a liberal price be paid, wholly at the discretion of the president and council of the Royal Academy. The president and council however will not be obliged to lay out annually the whole or any part of the annual sum at their disposal, which may be allowed to accumulate for not more than five years. All purchases must be bonâ fide purchases of finished works. The will expressly provides against commissioning any artist to execute works; and all purchases must be publicly exhibited for at least one month at the annual exhibition of the Royal Academy or elsewhere. All these purchases are to be collected for the purpose of forming and establishing a "Public National Collection of British Fine Art in Painting and Sculpture," executed within the shores of Great Britain. The will provides also against any expenditure of these funds in the erection of a building to contain permanently the works thus purchased; it having been Chantry's expectation that such building would be provided by the nation free of all charge upon his estate. The property devoted by Sir Francis Chantrey to this purpose is his residuary personal estate, over and above the property bequeathed to his wife, and all legacies; but he expresses a wish that at the decease of his wife all the property bequeathed to her should be by her devoted to the same purpose. Lady Chantrey however, so long as she remains a widow, has a life-interest in this residuary personal estate: its amount is not publicly known, but it is said to be about 2500l. per annum; it is vested in five trustees, including the president and treasurer of the Royal Academy. Chantrey left to his friend and principal assistant Allan Cunningham 2000., and, in a codicil, a life-annuity of 100l., and, in case of his death, to his widow. He left also to his assistant Henry Weekes, 10004; provided in both cases that they continued in their offices as assistants, until the completion of his unfinished works, or such as it was necessary to finish. Allan Cunningham however did not survive Chantrey an entire year: Chantrey died on the 25th of November 1841; Cunningham died on the 5th of November 1842.

Chantrey was buried in a vault constructed by himself in the church of his native place, Norton in Derbyshire, and he bequeathed 2004 per annum to the clergyman of the place, so long as his tomb shall last, to instruct ten poor boys, and to pay annually 10. to five poor men, and to five poor widows or unmarried women, selected by the clergyman, and being of the parish of Norton; the residue to be reserved by the clergyman for his own use in consideration of his

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Lady Chantrey presented the original models of the entire series of Sir Francis Chantrey's busts, the greater part of his monumental figures, and his studies from the antique, to Oxford University, "on condition that a permanent place be assigned to them in the Western Sculpture Gallery" of the Taylor Buildings, where they now are, and form a singularly interesting, and in some respects unique, series of the portraits of many of the most eminent among Chantrey's contemporaries. CHAPMAN, GEORGE, the earliest English translator of Homer, and known also as a prolific writer of dramas, was born in the year 1557. His birth-place is uncertain. Some have supposed him to have been a native of Hertfordshire, in which county, at Hitching-hill, he is known to have for some time resided. Wood believes him to have been of a Kentish family. The same writer asserts that he studied at Oxford, and that, although eminent in classics, he neglected philosophy, a fact which has been referred to as accounting for his want of an academical degree. Coming to London, he entered the ranks of the professional authors, and became an esteemed member of the best literary society, associating with Spenser, with Daniel, and with Shakspere, who was six or seven years his junior. He was patronised by Sir Thomas Walsingham and his son, by Henry Prince of Wales, and by Somerset the royal favourite. The death of the prince, and the fall of the minion, may be supposed to have had an unfavourable influence on his position; and even before these events Chapman, with Ben Jonson and Marston, had narrowly escaped severe punishment for satirical reflections on the Scotch, contained in their comedy of 'Eastward Ho!' But, although the particulars of Chapman's history are little known, it is understood that he held some place about court; and there is no evidence of his having ever laboured under those pecuniary distresses which mark so painfully the biography of some of his literary contemporaries. His personal character appears to have been both respectable and amiable. Jonson declared to Drummond that he loved Chapman; and Anthony Wood asserts him to have been "a person of most reverend aspect, religious and temperate, qualities rarely meeting in a poet." He attained to a ripe old age, and died in London on the 12th of May 1634. He was buried in the church-yard of St. Giles-in-the-fields, where his friend Inigo Jones erected a monument to his memory.

Chapman's published writings are very numerous. Among his non-dramatic productions, the most valuable, as well as ambitious, was his famous translation of Homer into English fourteen-syllable verse. Seven books of his 'Iliad' appeared in 1598; twelve books appeared in folio about 1600; and, after the accession of King James in 1603, there was published in folio the complete translation: 'The Iliads of Homer, Prince of Poets, never before in any language truly translated, with a comment upon some of his chief places, done according to the Greek by George Chapman.' This work was reprinted, with introduction and notes by Dr. W. Cooke Taylor, London, 1843, 2 vols. 12mo. The Odyssey,' similarly translated, appeared in 1614, and was followed in the same year by the 'Battle of the Frogs and Mice,' and the Homeric Hymns and Epigrams. The following were Chapman's other non-dramatic works, original and translated:-1, 'The Shadow of Night, containing two Poeticall Hymnes,' 1594, 4to. 2, 'Ovid's Banquet of Sence,' 1595, 4to. 3, Hero and Leander, begun ས by Ch. Marlow, and finished by George Chapman,' 1606, 4to. 4, 'Euthymia Raptus, or the Tears of Peace,' 1609, 4to. 5, 'An Epicede, or Funeral Song, on the most disastrous Death of the Highborn Prince of Men, Henry Prince of Wales,' 1612, 4to. 6, 'Andromeda Liberata, or the Nuptialls of Perseus and Andromeda,' 1614, 4to. 7, "The Georgicks of Hesiod, by George Chapman, translated elaborately out of the Greek,' 1618, 4to. 8, Pro Vere Autumni Lacrymæ, to the Memorie of Sir Horatio Vere,' 1622, 4to. 9, 'A Justification of a strange action of Nero, &c.; also a Just Reproof of a Roman SmellFeast, being the Fifth Satyre of Juvenall,' 1629, 4to.

The following are the titles of Chapman's plays, with the dates of their printing:-1, 'The Blind Beggar of Alexandria,' a comedy, 1598. 2, 'An Humourous Day's Mirth, a comedy, 1599. 3, 'All Fools,' a comedy; and 4, 'Eastward Ho,' a comedy, 1605 (by Chapman, Jonson, and Marston); both reprinted in Dodsley's collection. 5, 'The Gentleman Usher,' a comedy, 1606; 6, Monsieur d'Olive,' a comedy, 1606; and 7, Bussy d'Ambois,' a tragedy, 1607; all three reprinted in Dilke's 'Old English Plays.' 8, Cæsar and Pompey,' a tragedy, 1607. 9, and 10, 'The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Byron,' two tragedies, 1608. 11, May Day,' a comedy, 1611; reprinted in Dilke's collection. 12, The Widow's Tears,' a comedy, 1612; reprinted in Dodsley's collection. 13, The Revenge of Bussy d'Ambois,' a tragedy, 1613, in Dilke's collection. 14, The Masque of the Inns of Court,' 1613. 15, Two Wise Men and all the rest Fools,' a comedy, 1619. 16, 'The Tragedy of Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany,' 1654. 17, Revenge for Honour,' a tragedy, 1654. 18 and 19, The Ball,' a comedy, and 'Chabot, Admiral of France,' a tragedy, both printed in 1639 as works of Chapman and Shirley, and reprinted in the modern edition of Shirley's works by Gifford, who pronounces Chapman to have plainly had the principal share in their composition. Among the many speculations as to the authorship of the drama called The Two Noble Kinsmen,' in which Shakspere has been asserted to have assisted Fletcher, Mr. Knight, in his editions of the great poet's works, has conjectured that the parts attributed to him may really have been composed by Chapman.

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Chapman's dramas, although works of much significance in the history of our old literature, are not the most valuable of his works. They are among the many productions of his time which were written by men tempted, through the fashion of the day, into a walk of composition for which they were but indifferently qualified. In comedy, which had been formed into a native school more completely than tragedy, Chapman adapts himself readily, and not without success, to the teaohing of his juniors, especially Jonson and Fletcher; while he gives to the tone of his works not unfrequently an elevation of thought and a fulness of descriptive imagery which make some amends for the pervading stiffness of his portraiture of character and the forced and artificial turn of his incidents. In his tragic dramas he is, in point of plan and form, a semi-classic. He attempts at once to gratify the taste of his age and nation for the direct and vivid representation of dramatic horrors, and to maintain that tone of narrative declamation and of didactic reflection which Seneca had taught him, and to which his cast of mind made him naturally prone. The latter part of his 'Byron' is, as we venture to think, the best of his tragedies, and might better have deserved reprinting than the extravagant 'Bussy d'Ambois.' But Chapman's memory is best preserved, and his repu tation as a poetical imaginer and thinker most fully vindicated, by his free translations from the Greek, and especially by his spirited and vigorous version of the Iliad. The republication of this fine old poem is a judicious tribute to the improved taste of our time in poetical literature. His Iliad, like his plays, is deformed by many faults. It is as unequal as careless. Indeed, he himself, on completing the work, re-wrote the first book entirely, and altered very much the other eleven that had previously been published. But his patience was not sufficient, either for correcting adequately what he had already written, or for carrying him carefully through the remainder of his task: the last twelve books were translated by him in less than fifteen weeks. And again, indolence and strong imagination concurred in tempting him to desert, in many places, the sense of his author, and to paint elaborately pictures for which Homer hardly gave him even the sketch. Yet for vigour of fancy, for a loose kind of faithfulness to the spirit of the original, for constant strength and frequent felicity of diction, the work is one of the finest poems which our language possesses. When Pope, who carefully read it, described it as a work which Homer might have written before arriving at years of discretion, his fastidious taste led him to do the old poet less justice than that which had been rendered by Waller, who confessed that he could never read Chapman's Iliad without a degree of rapture. CHAPPE, CLAUDE, a French mechanician, who, though not the original inventor of a machine for transmitting intelligence with rapidity between places very distant from each other, must be considered as having devised the means of rendering such a machine available for that purpose. He was a nephew of the Abbé Chappe d'Auteroche, and was born at Brulon in Normandy, in 1763. It is said by his French biographers that, happening on some occasion in his youth to be separated from his friends, he conceived the idea of corresponding with them by means of signals; and that the result of his efforts to obtain this end was the invention of the machine which he called a telegraph (τîλe and ypάpw), or a semaphore (σñua and pépw). Whether or not he had at that time any knowledge of the discoveries of Dr. Hook in England, or of Amontons in his own country, both of which were nearly a century earlier, is uncertain, but there appears to be some resemblance between his machine and that which was proposed by the former in his discourse to the Royal Society in 1634. Be that as it may, no doubt can exist that M. Chappe is justly entitled to the honour of having invented both a particular system of signals, and the mechanism by which the operations are performed.

This machine consisted of a vertical pillar of wood fifteen or sixteen feet high, at the top of which was a transverse beam eleven or twelve feet long, which turned on a joint at its centre, and was capable of being placed at any angle with the pillar; and at each extremity of the beam was a secondary arm, which also turned on a joint, and could be placed either in the same direction as the beam or at any angle with it, upwards or downwards. The various positions of the beam and secondary arms were to serve as indications of the letters of the alphabet, and of the ten numerals; the sentence to be transmitted was to be exhibited letter by letter from the first telegraph to the next in the line; it was to be repeated in the same manner from the second to the third, and so on to the last.

M. Chappe presented his invention to the French Legislative Assembly in 1792, when the revolution had disposed the minds of men for the reception of any novelty which promised to be of national utility; and in the following year the government decreed that an experiment should be made, in presence of certain commissioners, in order to try its efficacy. For this purpose there was formed between Paris and Lisle, at distances from each other equal to three or four leagues, a line of stations, at each of which one of the machines was constructed; and the first, which was immediately under the direction of the inventor, was placed on the roof of the Louvre. The sentence to be conveyed was received there from the hands of the members composing the Committee of Public Safety, and in 13 minutes 40 seconds it was delivered through all the intermediate stations to that at Lisle, a distance of 48 leagues. The result of the experiment being con

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sidered satisfactory, the use of the machine became general in France; and it is said that one of the first despatches conveyed in this manner to Paris announced the re-taking of the town of Condé. The important advantages which might be derived from the use of the telegraph were immediately felt. A description of it was brought by an emigrant from Paris to Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, where two models were executed, which thence were sent to England by Mr. W. Playfair; and the invention, with modifications, was adopted in this country. The claim of M. Chappe to the honour of being the inventor of this kind of machine appears to have been disputed by some of his contemporaries, who also invidiously represented its imperfections or exposed the mistakes which, as they asserted, might be made in using it; and these circumstances are said to have so preyed on his mind that he fell into a profound melancholy, which terminated his life on the 23rd of January, 1805. CHAPPE, D'AUTEROCHE, JOHN, born 1722 (1728, Delambre), died 1769, in California, whither he had gone to observe the transit of Venus. He succeeded Lacaille at the Observatory of Paris, as assistant to Cassini de Thury, and published Halley's 'Tables,' in 1754. For his travels to Siberia and to California, &c., see Delambre's 'Hist. d'Astron. XVIII. siècle.'

CHAPTAL, JEAN ANTOINE, a distinguished French chemist, was born in 1756, at Nozaret (Lozère). His education commenced at Mende, whence he repaired to the School of Medicine at Montpelier, and afterwards to Paris. In 1781 he was appointed to the chemical chair recently founded by the States of Languedoc. Inheriting a large fortune from his uncle, he established some important chemical manufactories in his adopted city, and thus bestowed upon France several valuable products which were previously obtained from foreigners. In 1793 Chaptal was called to the capital by the Committee of Public Safety, to manage the manufactory of saltpetre, which substance could no longer be obtained from India, and the want of which was pressing. The great establishment of Grenelle thus became the scene of that zeal and ability of which Chaptal gave so many proofs during the whole of his existence. He was one of the first professors of the Polytechnic School; and the Institute elected him a member in the place left vacant by the death of Payen. After the establishment of the consulate, Napoleon called him to the Council of State; and in the year 9 (1801) appointed him Minister of the Interior. Towards the end of the year 12 Chaptal retired from these high appointments. During his administration of four years he conferred many benefits upon the state. Devoting much time to the examination of charitable establishments, which had suffered from the misfortunes of the times, he liquidated their debts; and originated several new institutions for the amelioration of the condition of the poor. As might however be expected from his habits, it was to the manufacturing interests of his country that his attention was principally directed; he established chambers of commerce, and consulting councils of arts and manufactures; the School of Arts and the Conservatory, which have become an important seminary and a great museum, are monuments of his enlightened solicitude for increasing the opportunities and means of instruction. He published useful processes, visited the manufactories, conversed with the workmen, offered them his advice, applauded their discoveries, and encouraged the importation of processes and apparatus from abroad; in fact, he extended his views and his care to every substance and circumstance which he considered favourable to the improvement of manufactories. "Some disappointments which he could not foresee, and certainly did not merit, obscured the close of Chaptal's brilliant career; but he supported them with dignity, without murmuring, and without breathing a complaint. He consoled himself among his friends, by study, and by fulfilling duties which had been imposed upon him, or which he had created for himself. Too well informed not to understand the nature of his disease, and feeling his end approaching, he resigned himself like a philosopher, and making the requisite arrangements for leaving a world where he had but few days to remain, he died beloved and surrounded by his numerous family, bestowing on them his blessing as his last farewell." (Thénard.) He died at Paris, 30th July 1832, in the 76th year of his age. He was a senator under the Empire, and at the time of his death he was Peer of France and a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour. He was one of the first founders of the Society of Encouragement, over which he presided many years.

Chaptal's principal works are 'Elémens de Chimie,' 3 vols. 8vo. The first edition appeared in 1790, and the fourth in 1803. It has been translated into most languages. Essai sur le Perfectionnement des Arts Chimiques en France,' 8vo, 1800; 'Art de Faire, de Gouverner, et de Perfectionner les Vins,' 1 vol. 8vo (first edition 1801, second, 1819); Traité théorique et pratique sur la Culture de la Vigne,' 2 vols. 8vo (first edition, 1801; second in 1811); 'Art du Teinturier et du Dégraisseur,' 8vo, 1800; Essai sur le Blanchiment,' 8vo, 1801; 'Chimie appliquée aux Arts,' 4 vols. 8vo, 1807; Art de la Teinture du Coton en Rouge,' 8vo, 1807; 'De l'Industrie Française,' 2 vols. 8vo, 1819; Mémoire sur le Sucre de Betteraves,' 8vo (first edition, 1815; second edition, 1821); Chimie appliquée à l'Agriculture,' 2 vols. 8vo (first edition, 1823; second edition, 1829). CHARDIN, SIR JOHN, was born at Paris in November 1643. His

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father, who was a Huguenot, or Protestant, carried on the business of a jeweller in the French capital, and brought up his son to the same profession. As soon however as Chardin was of age, in order to gratify his taste for travelling, and "to endeavour the advancement of his fortunes and estate," he left France for the East. During his first journey, which lasted from 1664 to 1670, he visited Persia and the East Indies, and returning to Paris, he published in 12mo' An Account of the Coronation of Solyman III., Schah of Persia. During his residence in Persia he gained access to the court, and was appointed agent to the Schah, who commissioned him to make purchases of jewels and trinkets for him in Europe. At the end of 1671 Chardin again departed for Persia by the route of Constantinople, the Black Sea, and Armenia. He arrived at Ispahan in June 1673, and remained in Persia till 1677, "chiefly," he says, "following the court in its removals, but also making some particular journeys, as well of curiosity as business, to prosecute my intentions, studying the language, and assiduously frequenting the most eminent and most knowing men of the nation, the better to inform myself in all things that were curious and new to us in Europe." Few travellers have been so conscientious and painstaking, or have had such good opportunities of acquainting themselves with the country and the manners and customs of Persia. He spoke the language like a native, he knew Ispahan better than Paris, and he visited nearly every part of the country, traversing, he says, "the whole length and breadth thereof."

In April 1681 he came to London, where he settled as jeweller to the court and nobility. On the 24th of the same month of April 1681 he was knighted by Charles II., and on the same day married to a young lady, the daughter of a French Protestant refugee, from Rouep. In the following year he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, which had recently been established, and some papers written by Sir John appear in the earliest number of the 'Transactions' of that society. He continued to carry on a considerable trade in jewels, prosecuting at the same time his studies of the oriental languages and antiquities. He did not publish an account of his eastern travels until 1686, and then he only brought out the first part of them, being his journey from Paris to Ispahan. ('Travels of Sir John Chardin,' fol., London, 1686.) This volume, with an unfortunate prophecy of future glory and a long reign, was rather pompously dedicated to James II., who two years later was driven from his throne. Chardin was a good courtier, but he had obligations to acknowledge to James as well as to Charles II. The latter king had employed him diplomatically on an important mission to Holland, and in 1683 Sir John had figured at the Hague and Amsterdam as agent for the English East India Company. In 1711 appeared the second part of his travels. During the latter part of his life he lived at Turnham Green, and, according to an entry in the church books, he was buried at Chiswick on the 29th of December 1713. His travels have been translated into various languages, and often reprinted. There is a very good edition (in French) in 4 vols. 4to, with plates, published at Amsterdam in 1735, which we have consulted; but the last and best edition is said to be that of Paris, 1811, in 10 vols. 8vo, with notes, by Langlés, which we have not seen.

About sixty years after his death, some manuscript notes which Chardin had written in India to illustrate passages in the Scriptures by a comparison of modern eastern usages, and which had long been lost, were recovered by his descendants, who advertised a reward for them. They were nearly all incorporated in Mr. Harmer's 'Observations on divers passages of Scripture, illustrated by books of travels,' &c. CHARES of Mitylene, Master of the Ceremonies to Alexander the Great, made a collection of anecdotes, or perhaps rather wrote an account of the private life and adventures of the king. We may judge from the fragments in Athenæus that this work contained numerous details which were exceedingly curious and interesting, (Athenæus, 'Deipn.,' Casaub., iii. 93, 124; x. 434, &c.)

CHARI'SIUS, AURELIUS ARCÁ'DIUS, a Roman jurist, who is supposed to have lived about the time of Constantine the Great. It is certain that he lived at least after Modestinus, whom he quotes. Modestinus lived under the emperor Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235). Charisius was Magister Libellorum Supplicum, a keeper of petitions, as we learn from the title of an excerpt from his own writings (Dig." 1, tit. 11.) He wrote a work, in one book, 'De Testibus;' a work, in one book, 'De Officio Præfecto Prætorio;' and a work, in one book, 'De Muneribus Civilibus' (see 'Index Florentinus').

His writings contain some words that are perhaps not used by the earlier jurists, as 'regimenta,' 'incunctabile. (Dig.' 22, tit. 5, s. 21.) His style and the words that he uses clearly show him to be one of the latest of the Roman jurists. Cujacius says that Charisius was a Christian; but the proof is not given. There are a few excerpts from the three works of Charisius in the 'Digest.'

CHA'RITON, the author of a Greek romance, in eight books, entitled 'The Loves of Chæreas and Callirrhoë.' The writer calls himself Chariton of Aphrodisias. The time at which he lived is uncertain, but probably not earlier than the fourth century of our era. Though this, like most other Greek romances, displays little invention, it has some merit in point of style. Chariton was published by D'Orville, Amsterdam, 1750, 3 vols. 4to, with a valuable commentary. It was translated into German by Schmieder, Leipzig, 1806, 8vo, and into French by Larcher.

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