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CHILD, SIR JOSIAH.

preface to his Essay on Health and Long Life,' for having treated their criticisms with rudeness. His 'Philosophical Principles of Natural Religion,' containing the elements of natural philosophy, and the evidence of natural religion to be deduced from them, was dedicated to the Earl of Roxburgh, for whose use it appears to have been written.

Cheyne's natural disposition to corpulency was so increased by full living in London, that in a few years he became "fat, short-breathed, lethargic, and listless." His health gradually sank, and, after trying a variety of treatment with little benefit, he confined himself to milk, with "seeds, bread, mealy roots, and fruit." The experiment succeeded, and he was soon relieved of his most distressing symptoms. During his illness, being deserted by his old associates, he began to look to religion for consolation, and at last "came to this firm and settled resolution in the main, viz., to neglect nothing to secure my eternal peace, more than if I had been certified I should die within the day; nor to mind anything that my secular obligations and duties demanded of me, less than if I had been ensured to live fifty years more. This, though with infinite weakness and imperfection, has been my settled intention in the main since." (The English Malady,' 2nd edit., p. 334.)

·

In 1722 he published an Essay on the true Nature and due Method of treating the Gout,' together with the virtues of the Bath waters, and the nature and cure of most chronic diseases. He had resided at Bath during the summers of several years, and attributed much of the benefit he had received to drinking the waters. In 1724 appeared his well-known Essay on Health and Long Life,' in which he inculcates the necessity of a strict regimen, particularly in diet, both in preventing and curing diseases. It was dedicated to Sir Joseph Jekyll, Master of the Rolls, who had been under the author's care. In the preface he gives an account of his former works, which he censures where faulty, with great frankness, particularly when he had treated other writers with levity or disrespect. In 1733 he brought out his English Malady,' a treatise on the spleen and vapours, as well as hysteric and hypochondriacal diseases in general. This work, once very popular, contains a very minute account of the author's own case. It appears that on his recovery he gradually returned to a more generous diet. "However for near twenty years I continued sober, moderate, and plain in my diet, and in my greatest health drank not above a quart, or three pints at most, of wine any day (which I then absurdly thought necessary in my bulk and stowage, though certainly by far an overdose), and that at dinner only, one half with my meat, with water, the other after, but none more that day, never tasting any supper, and at breakfast nothing but green tea, without any eatable; but by these means every dinner necessarily became a surfeit and a debauch; and in ten or twelve years I swelled to such an enormous size, that upon my last weighing I exceeded 32 stone. My breath became so short, that upon stepping into my chariot quickly, and with some effort, I was ready to faint away for want of breath, and my face turned black." (The English Malady,' 2nd edit., Lond., 1734, p. 342.)

He now returned to his low diet, and with the same success as before, though it required a longer time to re-establish his health. The proposal of a milk diet appears to have afforded much diversion to contemporary wits, some of whose gibes and sarcasms rather ruffled our author's complacency. Dr. Cheyne died at Bath, on the 12th of April, 1743.

CHILD, SIR JOSIAH, BART., was an eminent London merchant in the latter part of the 17th century, and one of the ablest of our earlier English writers on commerce and political economy. His principal publication is entitled 'Brief Observations concerning Trade and the Interest of Money,' by J. C., 4to, London, 1668. In his preface he tells us that this tract was written at his country-house in the sickness-year, that is, in 1665. Its leading purpose is to defend the late reduction of the legal rate of interest from eight to six per cent. (originally made by ordinance of the Long Parliament in 1651, and confirmed at the Restoration), and to urge a still further reduction. The author's great example of commercial success is that of the Dutch, and he maintains that "the lowness of the rate of interest is the causa causans of all the other causes of the riches of that people." The rate of interest, as is now well understood, is merely a measure or expression of the ratio of the supply of money to the demand. It rises or falls with the rate of profits; and that again depends in great part upon the quantity of capital seeking for employment; so that, in fact, instead of a low rate of interest being the cause of accumulated wealth in a community, it is more likely to be the consequence of that state of things. This was pointed out in an answer to Child's treatise, published the same year under the title of Interest of Money Mistaken, or a Treatise proving that the abatement of Interest is the effect and not the Cause of the Riches of a Nation.' In another respect also Child's notions in this publication are opposed to those now generally entertained his recommendation, namely, that the natural rate of interest should be kept down, or rather attempted to be kept down, by a legal restriction. In support of his views he reprints, as an appendix, Sir Thomas Culpeper's Tract against the High Rate of Usurie,' first published in 1623. Notwithstanding some fundamental defects however, the work contains much that is sound and valuable; and some of the principles laid down in it are both in advance of the

current opinions of the day and pithily and happily expressed. A second edition, much enlarged, appeared in 1690, under the title of 'A New Discourse of Trade;' a third in 1698; and the work has since been twice reprinted, the last time in 12mo at Glasgow in 1751. It is in this work that Child has explained his plan for the relief and employment of the poor, of which Sir Frederic Eden has given an account in his 'State of the Poor,' vol. i. pp. 186, &c. It included the substitution of districts or unions for parishes, and the compulsory transportation of paupers to the colonies. He proposes that the funds should be managed by an incorporated body to be styled 'The Fathers of the Poor,' and to wear, each of them, "some honourable medal, after the manner of the familiars of the Inqusition in Spain." In Watt's 'Bibliotheca,' and other catalogues, this plan is noticed as a separate publication (though without date); but we do not know that it ever appeared except as one of the chapters of the New Discourse of Trade.' Child, who was one of the directors and for some time chairman of the East India Company, and who took a leading part in the conduct of its proceedings, is stated to have written several tracts in defence of the trade to the East Indies; but they appear to have been all anonymous, and the only one which has usually been distinctly assigned to him is that entitled 'A Treatise wherein it is demonstrated that the East India Trade is the most national of all Foreign Trades, by iλоmaтpis, 4to, London, 1681. This is affirmed in the work called The British Merchant' (originally published in 1710), second edition, vol. i. p. 162, to have been written by him, or at least by his direction. It was contended by the opponents of the company that the East India trade was ruinous, or prejudicial, by reason of its draining the country of gold and silver; it was answered by Child, as it had been many years before by Thomas Mun, in his 'Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies,' that the trade in reality brought more treasure, or gold and silver, into the country than it took out of it, by our sales of eastern commodities to other European nations. It was upon this ground simply that parliament had recently (by the 15 Car. II, c. 7, s. 12) so far permitted the trade to be legally carried on in the only way it could be carried on at all as to allow the exportation dutyfree of foreign coin and bullion.

Taking his stand upon what has been called the mercantile system, the principle of which is, that the value of a foreign trade depends upon the balance which it leaves to be received in money, Child admitted the paramount importance of gold and silver; but contended that the effect of the India trade, taken in its whole extent, as including the trade with other countries which we carried on by means of our imports from the east, was to promote, not to prevent, the accumulation in our hands of the precious metals. The destruction however of the fancy that there was anything necessarily desirable in that result, as far at least as it could be destroyed by reasoning, and the demonstration of the truth that gold and silver do not differ in any respect in their commercial character from other commodities, were accomplished a few years after this date by Sir Dudley North in his Discourses upon Trade, principally directed to the Cases of Interest, Coinage, Shipping, and Increase of Money,' 4to, London, 1691.

Sir Josiah Child was the second son of Richard Child, a merchant of London; he was born in 1630, was created a baronet in 1678, and died in 1699. He attained to great wealth, was thrice married, and by each of his wives had one or more children, who married into some of the highest families among the nobility. His last wife survived till the year 1735, "at which time," we are told by Morant, the historian of Essex, "it was said she was nearly allied to so many of the prime nobility that eleven dukes and duchesses used to ask her blessing, and it was reckoned that above fifty great families would go into mourning for her."

He studied with a view to the

CHILDREN, JOHN GEORGE, was born on the 18th of May 1777, at Ferox Hall, Tonbridge. From the Grammar school of that town he went to Éton, and afterwards, in 1794, entered Queen's College, Cambridge, as fellow-commoner. church, but the early death of his wife led him to travel in the south of Europe and in the United States, from whence he returned to devote himself to scientific pursuits.

While studying mineralogy, chemistry, and galvanism, he made the acquaintance of Davy, Wollaston, and other leading men of science. In 1807 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In the following year he contributed a paper to the 'Philosophical Transactions,' on Some experiments performed with a view to ascertain the most advantageous method of constructing a voltaic apparatus, for the purposes of chemical research,' in which he determined the effect of unusually large battery plates. With twenty pairs of plates each four feet long and two feet wide, he confirmed Davy's observation, "that intensity increases with the number [of plates], and the quantity of electricity with the extent of the surface."

This was followed in 1815 by a paper, published also in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' An account of some experiments with a large voltaic battery,' in which a further series of singularly interesting results was described, among them the conversion of iron into steel by union with diamond, under the sole action of the battery.

Between the dates of these papers Mr. Children travelled in Spain, and visited the quicksilver mines of Almaden, then but little known in England. In 1816 he was appointed one of the librarians in the department of Antiquities (afterwards of Natural History) of the

British Museum. In 1819 he published a translation of Thénard's Essay on Chemical Analysis,' and in 1822 of Berzelius's Treatise on the Use of the Blowpipe,' with additional experiments and notes. He discovered a method for extracting silver from its ore without amalgamation, and derived considerable profit by selling the right to use it to several South American mining companies in 1824. He helped in establishing the Zoological Journal,' which appeared in 1825, and was one of the first editors. In 1826 he was elected secretary of the Royal Society, and resigning the following year on account of ill health, was re-elected in 1830, and retained the office for seven years. In 1839, on the death of his third wife, Mr. Children resigned his post at the British Museum. He died on the first day of 1852.

The com

CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM, was the son of William Chillingworth, mayor of Oxford, where he was born in October, 1602. In 1618 he was a scholar, and in 1628 a fellow, of Trinity College in that University. Some curious memoirs of him are preserved by Anth. Wood ('Athen. Oxon.' c. 20), who says "he would often walk in the college grove, and dispute with any scholar he met, purposely to facilitate and make the way of wrangling common with him, which was a fashion used in those days, especially among the disputing theologists, or those who set themselves apart purposely for divinity." parative merits of the English and Romish churches were at that time a subject of zealous and incessant disputation among the university students; and several learned Jesuits succeeded in making distinguished proselytes among the Protestant clergy and nobility. Chillingworth, being an able disputant, was singled out by the famous Jesuit Fisher, alias Johannes Perseus ('Biblioth. Soc. Jesu '), by whom he was convinced of the necessity for an infallible living 'Rule of Faith. On this he at once adopted the Roman Catholic system, wrote out his reasons for abjuring Protestantism, and joined the Jesuits in their college at Douay.

After the lapse of a few months, the arguments addressed to him by his godfather, Dr. Laud, then bishop of London, induced him to abandon his new faith, and he returned to Oxford in 1631, where he passed about four years in reconsidering the Protestant tenets. The great work of Daillè on the 'Fathers,' which then first appeared, is said to have finally determined him.

In 1635 he published his 'Religion of Protestants, a safe way to Salvation.' It excited great attention, and passed through two editions in less than five months. The principle of Chillingworth is, that the volume of Divine Scriptures, ascertained to be such by the ordinary rules of historical and critical investigation, is to be considered the sole authority of Christians, to the utter exclusion of ecclesiastical tradition. His assertion of the principle of private judgment was opposed as much by the Puritans as by the Roman Catholics; and while the Jesuit Knott, alias Matthias Wilson (Biblioth. Patrum Soc. Jesu,' p. 185), contended that he "destroyed the nature of faith by resolving it into reason;" Dr. Cheynell "prayed that God would give him new light to deny his carnal reason, and submit to faith." These were two of the most determined of Chillingworth's antagonists. Cheynell was one of the assembly of divines who, in 1646, was sent to convert the University of Oxford. Chillingworth in the meantime, unable to reason his conscience into an approval of the 39 Articles, refused to accept any preferment in the church. His long letter on the subject to Dr. Sheldon (afterwards archbishop of Canterbury), a most interesting document, is given in his Life, by Des Maizeaux, p. 86, and in Kippis's 'Biog. Brit.' Nothing can be stronger than the expressions of refusal to subscribe with mental reservation. However, in a very short time he was completely persuaded by the arguments of Drs. Sheldon and Laud, that peace and union are the real object of subscription, not belief or assent-a doctrine held by Archbishop Sancroft and many other eminent divines. Accordingly he accepted the chancellorship of Salisbury with the prebend of Brixworth, Northamptonshire, annexed. Chillingworth, in 1640, was deputed by the chapter of Salisbury as their proctor to the Convocation in London. He was attached very zealously to the royal party, and wrote a treatise (unpublished) on 'The Unlawfulness of resisting the lawful Prince, although most impious, tyrannical, and idolatrous.' Being present in the army of Charles I. at the siege of Gloucester, August 1643, he acted as engineer, and devised the construction of engines, in imitation of the Roman 'testudines cum pluteis,' to assault the rebels and take the city by storm. Having accompanied the king's forces under Lord Hopton to Arundel castle, he was there with his comrades taken prisoner by the parliament army under Sir William Waller; and falling ill he was thence conveyed to the Bishop's palace at Chichester, where he died and was buried in January 1644. A singular scene occurred at his funeral. Dr. Cheynell, then rector of Petworth, appeared at the grave, with the work of Chillingworth (Relig. of Protest.') in his hand, and after an admonitory oration on the dangerous tendency of its rationalism, he flung it into the grave, exclaiming, "Get thee gone, thou cursed book, which hast seduced so many precious souls-get thee gone, thou corrupt rotten book, earth to earth, dust to dust, go rot with thy author!" He afterwards published Chillingworthi Novis sima, or the Sicknesse, Heresy, Death, and Burial of Wm. C., with a prophane catechism collected out of his works, by F. Cheynell, Fell. Mert. Coll. Ox.,' 1644 and 1725. In this singular production the object of the author's enmity is jeered at as "this man of reason whose head was as full of scruples as it was of engines." But the character and

abilities of Chillingworth have been greatly and justly extolled by many of our most distinguished writers. Tillotson styled him "the incomparable Chillingworth," and Locke says (on Education") "If you would have your son to reason well, let him read Chillingworth;" and again (on 'Study'), "For attaining right reasoning I propose the constant reading of Chillingworth: for this purpose he deserves to be read over and over again;" but Anth. Wood's opinion is not outdone by any, for he declares that "Chillingworth had such extraordinary clear reason that if the great Turk or the Devil could be converted, he was able to do it." The result of his remarkable proficiency in wrangling' is however stated by his intimate friend Lord Clarendon ('Hist. Rebell.') to have been that "Chillingworth had contracted such an irresolution and habit of doubting, that at last he was confident of nothing." It is said by Clarendon that "Chillingworth was a man of little stature," and that it was "an age in which many great and wonderful men were of that size." The 10th and best edition of 'The Religion of Protestants' is that in fol., 1742, with sermons, &c., and a life of the author by Dr. Birch. The Religion of Protestants' has been since often reprinted. There is a recent edition of Chillingworth's whole works, in 1 vol. 8vo. A complete list of his miscellaneous controversial works is given in Kippis's Biog. Brit.,' vol. iii., p. 515, and in the Life of Chillingworth,' by Des Maizeaux, 8vo, 1725. *CHISHOLM, MRS. CAROLINE, was born about the year 1810, in the parish of Wootton, Northamptonshire, where her father, William Jones, was a small proprietor of land. He died while his daughter was young, but she was carefully brought up by her mother, and in her twentieth year was married to Captain Alexander Chisholm, of the Indian army. Soon after the marriage they proceeded to Madras, where Mrs. Chisholm's commiseration was excited by the neglected condition in which she saw the female children and orphans of the British soldiers. She succeeded in establishing, under her own management, a school for girls, and afterwards a school of industry, which had the most satisfactory results. After a residence of some years at Madras, the state of Captain Chisholm's health required a change of climate, and in 1838 he obtained leave of absence, and they removed to Australia. They resided for some time at Sydney, and when Captain Chisholm's health was re-established, he returned to Madras, but his wife remained at Sydney. About this time large numbers of young women were landed there from emigrant-ships, who, if they were not immediately engaged, were without friends, without money, and without a place to sleep in. Here again Mrs. Chisholm was excited to benevolent exertion, and her first efforts were directed to obtain an asylum for the destitute girls. Some allowance of food was supplied by the colonial government to those who applied for it, but no place of shelter. Mrs. Chisholm applied to Sir George Gipps, the governor, and at length, at the end of 1841, a low wooden building was obtained, part of an old barracks, and very small, where she herself mostly resided with the girls, in order to superintend and train them. Step by step she extended her plans of benevolence, lent small sums to assist the emigrants, travelled far into the interior, taking young women with her to place them in their situations, became known to the settlers, who willingly supplied food and shelter, established depôts in the bush, and a registry-office in Sydney, and in the period from 1841 to the end of 1845 had obtained situations for females and employment for men to the number of 11,000, to whom she lent small sums which amounted altogether to 12001, the whole of which was repaid, minus only 16. In 1845 Captain Chisholm rejoined his wife, and in 1846 they decided on revisiting England. Before they left the colony several of the most distinguished persons in Sydney and the vicinity presented Mrs. Chisholm with an address of thanks "for her zealous exertions on behalf of the emigrant population;' and a subscription of 150l. as a testimonial, which, in accepting, she stated should "be expende i in further promoting emigration, and in restoring wives to their husbands and children to their parents." Captain Chisholm and his wife landed in England at the end of the year 1846, and took up their residence at Islington, where she carried out her plans of assisting the emigrants of the poorer classes. She established a Family Colonization Society,' by which passage-money was collected by weekly instalments; she travelled in the manufacturing districts, and both there and in the metropolis explained her plans, and gave many interesting accounts of what she had done and seen. Large numbers of emigrants, properly and prudently provided for, were sent out in successive ships, and in 1854 she herself and her family left London in an emigrant ship for Australia, with the intention, as she stated, of there spending the remainder of her life. Α considerable sum was subscribed in Great Britain as a testimonial, and presented to her before she left.

CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL, a distinguished miniature-painter and etcher of the 18th century, was born at Danzig in 1726. His father was a tradesman of Danzig, and Daniel was brought up and continued in the business until his father's death in 1740. In 1743 he removed to Berlin, and entered into the service of an uncle, who seems to have kept a general store. One class of articles which he sold was painted snuff-boxes, the paintings of which were all executed by Daniel in his leisure hours, many of them on enamel, which art his uncle had had him taught for the purpose. The designs were all copied from prints, and were, according to Chodowiecki's own account, miserable performances: his whole knowledge of drawing and painting he had learnt

from an aunt in Danzig. Chodowiecki continued some time employed in this humble way, until through his enamel-master, Haid, he made the acquaintance of some of the artists of Berlin, whose works and conversation excited his ambition, and induced him in the year 1754 to devote himself arduously and exclusively to art. He commenced as a miniature-painter, and met with considerable success, but he soon forsook this tedious art for etching. He etched chiefly from his own designs, and as an etcher he ultimately obtained a reputation equal if not superior to that of any artist of his age in Europe. His etchings are very numerous, amounting to at least two thousand, but they are mostly small, and the greater part were executed for booksellers. A printseller of Berlin, of the name of Jakoby, published a complete catalogue of his prints in 1814, in one volume octavo; there is also a long list of them in his autobiography inserted in Meusel's Miscellany,' arranged chronologically; and another in Heineken's 'Dictionary,' arranged according to the subjects, consisting of heads, portraits, historical pieces sacred and profane, figures, and original compositions; landscapes, illustrations for pocket-books and almanacs, from novels, &c., and frontispieces, vignettes, and tail-pieces for various works. The works engraved after Chodowiecki's designs or drawings by other engravers are less numerous than his own etchings, but amount nevertheless to some hundreds, including several designs for Lavater's work on Physiognomy,' engraved by J. H. Lips and others. Chodowiecki was director of the Royal Academy of the Arts of Berlin, where he died in 1801. Many of his designs are satirical, and he has been called the Hogarth of Berlin. All his works, though on a small scale, are remarkable for their expression, and the character is seldom exaggerated; his subjects are chiefly illustrative of common life or contemporary and recent history. Many novels and other light works which he illustrated, owed their success chiefly and in some cases entirely to his vignettes; and the 'Almanac' of the Berlin Academy, which he illustrated from the year 1770, had, from the same cause, a very extensive circulation. *CHODZKO, ALEXANDER, a Polish poet, linguist, and traveller, of whom little is to be gathered but from scattered incidental notices in his own writings. In the poems of Korsak, a Lithuanian author, there is an epistle to Chodzko dated from Wilna in 1826, in which he congratulates him on his good fortune in being able to rove the East. In 1833 a volume of Polish poems by Chodzko himself was published at Posen, but is spoken of in no high terms by Polish critics. His next production was in English, and issued in London in 1842, at the expense of the Oriental Translation Fund. It is entitled 'Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia, as found in the adventures and improvisations of Kurroglou, the bandit-minstrel of Northern Persia, and in the songs of the people inhabiting the shores of the Caspian Sea, orally collected and translated with philological and historical notes by Alexander Chodzko.' In the preface, which is dated at London, July 1842, the writer tells us that he collected these poems during a sojourn of eleven years in the countries where they are current, and remarks, very truly, that the Oriental student will regret with him the omission of the original texts, which he had taken down in manuscript from the mouths of the reciters, few of whom could either read or write. These were not printed entire by the Oriental Translation Fund on account of the expense; but a few specimens in the Tuka-Turkman, the Perso-Turkish, and the Zendo-Persian dialects were added in an appendix, "from a hope of their greatly aiding the researches of investigators into the language of the cuneiform inscriptions of Van, Bistún, and Persepolis, and probably of leading to some knowledge even of those of Babylon." The volume is singularly interesting in its contents, which are chiefly descriptive of the exploits of a sort of Turkish Robin Hood, and which are rendered into spirited English by the Polish translator, who however acknowledges his obligations to the revision of the Rev. J. Reynolds, then secretary of the Oriental Fund. His next appearance as a writer was in French, in an essay on the bilingual Lycian inscriptions discovered in Asia Minor by Sir Charles Fellowes, one of the languages of which he attempted to prove was of the Slavonic family. Unfortunately M. Chodzko appears to have taken the inscription from an inaccurate copy, and the speculations founded upon it are therefore untenable. This essay was printed by his friend the poet Adam Mickiewicz, as an appendix to 'L'Eglise Officielle et le Messianisme' (Paris, 1845), but had been circulated some years before that date. In 1844 Chodzko superintended the edition of Mickiewicz's Poems,' printed at Paris, which was the latest issued during the author's lifetime, and is the most important work of modern Polish literature. The first edition of Mickiewicz, printed at Paris in 1828, had been issued by Jakób Leonard Chodzko, who is probably a relative.

*CHODZKO, JAKOB LEONARD, a Polish writer, whose works are frequently referred to by writers on Polish subjects, was born at Oborek, in the district of Ozmiana, on the 6th of November 1800, and was educated at the university of Wilna. He entered, with many of the other students, into a secret society formed by the student Zan against the Russian government; but before its discovery by the Russian authorities, which led to the banishment or imprisonment of most of its members, left Poland as secretary to Prince Michael Oginski, whom he accompanied on his travels. In 1826, not venturing to return to Poland, he established himself at Paris as an author, and has continued there since, in the peaceful exercise of the profession,

with the exception of a brief interval at the revolution of 1830, when he so distinguished himself at the barricades that he was appointed one of the aides-de-camp of General Lafayette. His chief works, all of which are in French, are, Observations on Poland and the Poles, as an Introduction to the Memoirs of Michael Oginski,' Paris, 1827; History of the Polish Legions in Italy,' 2 vols., Paris, 1829; and a new edition of Malte-Brun's 'Picture of Ancient and Modern Poland,' 2 vols., 1830, with such considerable additions, especially an essay on Polish legislation by Lelewel, and a sketch of Polish literature by Podczaszynski, as more than double the value of the original. He also superintended two series of a work entitled La Pologne Historique littéraire, &c.,' Paris, 1839-41, in which he was assisted by Madame Olympe Chodzko, his wife. The whole of his works are of the same character, useful compilations of facts, in which valuable information is brought together in one language, the materials of which had to be sought in another. He has made accessible to the European reader much that lay buried in the neglected literature of Poland. CHOISEUL, ÉTIENNE FRANÇOIS, DUC DE, born in 1719, rose to the highest offices in the state under Louis XV., and was in fact the ruling minister during a great part of that reign. He was made minister for foreign affairs in 1758, minister at war in 1761, and some years after he resumed the department of foreign affairs. He held this last office till December 1770, when in consequence of his imperious character, which had made him many enemies at court among men of all parties, among whom were the Maréchal de Richelieu and the Duc d'Aiguillon, he was exiled to his estate of Chanteloup, where he wrote his memoirs and a satirical comedy against the royal family, and especially against the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., styled 'Le Royaume d'Arle quinerie,' which he printed himself at Chanteloup and distributed among his friends. His memoirs were published at Paris in 1790, after his death. The administration of the Duc de Choiseul was singularly unfortunate. In the war against England, which terminated by the peace of Paris in 1763, France lost Canada, and her fleets, as well as those of Spain, were defeated; and in the Seven Years' war France took the part of Austria against Frederic of Prussia, who triumphed over both. The Duc de Choiseul's partiality for Maria Theresa of Austria has been strongly censured. He concluded the marriage between Marie Antoinette and the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. In 1760 he expelled the Jesuits from France. He is also said to have secretly encouraged the first symptoms of discontent among the English colonies of North America.

The personal character of the duke was generous though haughty; he was disinterested and splendid in his expenditure, by which he ruined his own fortune. He loved the arts and literature, and was a friend of Voltaire and the other literary characters of that age. His enemies exaggerated his faults, and attributed to him crimes of which there is not the least evidence. He died at Paris in May 1785. (Examen du Ministère du Duc de Choiseul in the Mémoires du Duc d'Aiguillon.)

CHRIST, JESUS. [JESUS CHRIST.]

CHRISTIERN II., of Denmark, born in 1481, was the son of King John, and grandson of Christiern I. He ascended the throne on his father's death in 1513. In 1520 he succeeded in having himself elected King of Sweden, which country had been long distracted by civil factions. Christiern took an atrocious, but, as he fancied it, an expeditious way of getting rid of all opposition for the future. Having assembled the chief nobles and prelates of Stockholm on the occasion of his coronation, he had them suddenly arrested and publicly executed. He also massacred a number of the citizens of Stockholm. (Puffendorf.) Gustavus Erickson, a descendant of the ancient kings, who was a prisoner in Denmark, having contrived to escape, took refuge in the forests of Dalecarlia, where he roused the peasantry, attacked Christiern and his satellite the Archbishop of Upsal, defeated them, and drove the Danes from Sweden. [GUSTAVUS ERICKSON.] Soon after Christiern was deposed by his own Danish subjects, who elected Frederick, duke of Holstein, in 1523. Christiern retired to Flanders, whence, after ten years, he set off with some Dutch troops, and made an attempt to recover his Danish dominions. He failed; and, being taken prisoner, was put in prison, where he died in January 1559. He has been called the Nero of the North.

CHRISTINA (of Sweden), the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus by Maria Eleonora, princess of Brandenburg, was born on the 8th of December 1626. Her father bestowed great care on her education, and having no son to succeed him was anxious to cultivate in her a strong and masculine disposition. Even when a mere infant he expected that she, as the daughter of a warrior, should hear the roar of artillery without emotion. On his departure for the wars in Germany, Gustavus Adolphus appointed a regency, and, carrying his daughter in his arms, presented her to the assembled states of the kingdom as their future sovereign.

Gustavus fell at Lutzen in November 1632. Christina, then six years of age, was proclaimed queen by the states, who left her in the hands of regents or guardians,-the five great dignitaries of the crown, who were charged with the administration of affairs and the task of completing the young queen's education. The Chancellor Oxenstiern, an experienced and enlightened statesman, was at the head of these dignitaries, and the other members of the regency were persons of ability and upright intentions. They however pursued the plan

of education and discipline that had been traced out by the king himself, and to this we must, in part, attribute the singular character afterwards displayed by Christina.

From her earliest years she was surrounded by grave masters and scholars, who crowded and oppressed her intellect with Latin, Greek, Hebrew, history, and politics; and for her lighter amusements she was allowed to ride on horseback in masculine attire, to hunt, to shoot, and review troops. The society of her own sex was soon insupportable to her. It is generally stated that she made considerable progress in several ancient and modern languages, and in other branches of knowledge, and that at the council table she showed a searching wit and great precocity of reason. But her knowledge was not digested, and her mind wanted the equilibrium which is given by refined taste and sound judgment. Bayle says she read daily some pages of Tacitus in the original.

In 1644 she took the reins of government into her own hands, and, much favoured by circumstances, acted rather a conspicuous part in the affairs of Europe. She at once finished a war with Denmark, obtaining by treaty the cession of some territory to Sweden; she pressed on the peace with Germany against the advice of Oxenstiern and others; and finally became a party to the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, by which, in consequence of the victories of her brave troops, she obtained several millions of dollars, three votes in the diet of the Germanic empire, and the cession of Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen, and Verden. When pressed by the states to marry, she constantly and firmly refused. The assigned motives of her refusal have been preserved in several eccentric speeches. Among those who aspired to her hand was her own cousin Charles Gustavus, a prince of excellent qualities. In 1649 she was induced by the states to declare him her successor; but she would not allow the prince any share of her sovereign power, of which she was exceedingly jealous. Soon after the naming of her successor was over, she had herself crowned with great pomp, under the title of King.

Having now no wars to engage her attention, she gave herself up with all the energy of her character to arts and literature, or rather to a mania of patronising artists and men of letters. Her court was soon crowded, good being mixed with the bad, the empty pretender with the real man of science, the sage with the buffoon. She attracted to Stockholm, Saumaise (Salmasius), Vossius, Bochart, Huet, Chevreau, Naudé, Meibom, and other foreigners, chiefly Frenchmen.

Bourdelot, a gossiping intriguing French abbé, who pretended to some knowledge of medicine, and who was retained in quality of her physician, became the great favourite of the queen by flattering her vanity and ridiculing her court of philosophers and men of letters, whose jealousies and jarrings were incessant. Christina spent enormous sums, for so poor a country as Sweden, in the purchase of books, manuscripts, statues, pictures, antiquities, and curiosities. But reverence and affection for her father's memory stifled the murmurs of the Swedes, and when, to the astonishment of everybody, she first spoke of abdicating, she was most earnestly entreated to remain on the throne. For some short time after this she showed a renewal of good sense and energy, and a disposition to public business. It was at this interval that Cromwell's ambassador, Whitlock, saw a good deal of her majesty, and that his secretary or follower, Morton, picked up that curious information about her court and herself which was afterwards published in England. ('Journal of an Embassy to Sweden in 1653-54, from the Commonwealth of England,' by Charles Morton; Whitlock's 'Journal' was also published in 1855.) Her distaste for what she called the splendid slavery of royalty, her desire to indulge in all her caprices in perfect liberty, and (a stronger motive perhaps than any other) her wish of presenting an extraordinary spectacle to the world, soon returning upon her, she formally signified her decided intention of renouncing the crown in May 1654, and on the 16th of June her abdication took place with great solemnity, she being then only in the 28th year of her age.

Christina reserved to herself the revenues of some districts in Sweden and Germany, the entire independence of her person, and supreme authority, with the right of life and death, over all such persons as should enter her service and form her suite. A few days after this public act she set off for Brussels, where she privately abjured the Protestant religion. A little later she publicly embraced Roman Catholicism at Innspruck. From the Tyrol she travelled to Rome, where she made a sort of triumphal entrance, riding on horseback, dressed almost like a man. Here she surrounded herself with poets, painters, musicians, numismatists, and the like. Quarrelling however with some of the College of Cardinals, she made a journey into France in 1656. At Paris she of course made a great sensation. Her constant companions were authors and academicians; for the society of her own sex she showed a greater contempt than ever, and the only French woman about whom she seemed to take any interest was Ninon L'Enclos. Her stay in Paris is said to have been shortened by Cardinal Mazarin, who, finding her inclined to engage in some intrigues against his authority, took such measures as rendered that capital an unpleasant residence for her. She however returned to France in the following year, and added to her notoriety by causing Monaldeschi, her master of the horse and chief favourite, to be put to death, for some alleged offence. This murder she justified by stating that by her deed of abdication she had reserved to herself supreme power over her own

suite, that she was still a queen wherever she went, and that Monaldeschi was guilty of high treason. Strange to say, she found defenders elsewhere; and among them Leibnitz, who wrote an elaborate justification of the deed at Fontainebleau.

The court was offended, but took no public notice of this atrocious act. Finding herself avoided in France, Christina thought of visiting England, but the Protector Cromwell turned the dark side of his countenance towards her; she therefore did not land in England, but returned to Rome, where she presently involved herself in great pecuniary difficulties, and a quarrel with the pope (Alexander VII.). Upon the death of the king, her cousin, Charles Gustavus, in 1660, she travelled hastily from Rome to Stockholm, where, according to most accounts, she showed a strong desire to re-ascend the throne; but the minds of the people were entirely alienated, and her change of religion was an insuperable barrier. She returned once more to Rome, which she never again left, except for one or two short intervals, during the remaining twenty-eight years of her life. Through that long period her occupations were various, and many of her proceedings indicate eccentricity approaching to insanity. She took part in several political intrigues; she is even said to have aspired to the elective crown of Poland; she interested herself for the Venetians in Candia, besieged by the Turks; she quarrelled anew with the pope and cardinals, who had liberally supplied her with money; she engaged actively in the Molinist or Quietist controversy; she indulged in the dreams of alchemy and judicial astrology; she violently censured Louis XIV. for his revocation of the Edict of Nantes and his dragonades against the Protestants of France; she founded an 'Accademia, or literary society; she corresponded with many savans, and she made a large collection of objects of art and antiquity. The ruling passion, in short, was the ambition of influencing great political affairs even when all power and influence had departed from her. She died at Rome with great composure on the 19th of April, 1689, in the sixty-third year of her age. Though she wrote continually, not much of her writing has been preserved. Her 'Maxims and Sentences,' and 'Reflections on the Life and Actions of Alexander the Great,' were collected and published by Archenholtz, in his memoirs of her life, 4 vols. 4to, 1751. From the somewhat tediously minute work of Archenholtz, who was librarian to the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and an honest painstaking man, Lacombe derived the materials for his life of Christina, and D'Alembert his reflections and anecdotes of the same personage. Her 'Secret Letters,' and Memoirs of her own Life, dedicated to God,' are forgeries.

(See Archenholtz, as above; Catteau-Calville, Histoire de Cristine, Reine de la Suède; Fortia, Travels in Sweden; Biographie Universelle; the works of Bayle, her contemporary and correspondent; Voltaire; and Horace Walpole.)

* CHRISTINA, MARIA, mother of the Queen of Spain, Isabel II., was born April 27, 1806, in the city of Naples. She is the daughter of the late King of the Two Sicilies, by his second wife, Maria Isabel, daughter of Carlos IV., king of Spain, and is the sister of Ferdinando II., the present King of the Two Sicilies. She was married at Madrid Dec. 11, 1829, to the late king of Spain, Fernando VII. On the 10th of October, 1830, she gave birth to the present Queen of Spain. On the death of the king, September 29, 1833, she became by his will queenregent (reina gobernadora) during the minority of her daughter. She was secretly married December 28, 1833, to Don Fernando Muñoz, then an officer in the royal life-guards. Shortly after the king's death, his brother, Don Carlos, laid claim to the throne, on the ground that by the Salic law females were ineligible, notwithstanding the law which had been passed before the king's death to make them eligible. A civil war ensued, which lasted till September 1840, when the partizans of Don Carlos were finally defeated. A conspiracy which was successfully accomplished, August 13, 1836, in the royal residence of La Granja, for a time deprived the queen-regent of her power, and compelled her to swear to the liberal constitution, June 18, 1837; after which she regained her authority, and continued to rule till 1840, when she gave her assent to a law which interfered with the deliberations of the ayuntamientos, or town-councils. The consequence of this violation of the constitution to which she had sworn was an insurrection which placed Espartero at the head of affairs, and the queen-regent abdicated Oct. 12, 1840. She then retired to France. After the fall of Espartero in 1843 she returned to Madrid. It having been decreed that the Queen of Spain had attained her majority November 8, 1843, on the 10th of November Maria Isabel took the oath to observe the consti tution, and the regency of the queen-mother ceased. On the 13th of October 1844 the marriage of Christina with Muñoz, then created Duke of Rianzares, was publicly celebrated. As the queen at the time of her accession was still very young, the influence and power of Christina were little if at all diminished, and the measures of her government were generally arbitrary and unconstitutional. This state of affairs continued till the beginning of 1854, when insurrections commenced, which continued to extend till the 17th of July 1854, when the people began to fight with the soldiers in the streets of Madrid. On the 19th of July the ministers fled, the soldiers submitted to the people, a national junta was established, and Espartero was again placed in authority. The conduct of Christina, personal as well as public, had long filled the Spanish people with the greatest disgust. On the 28th of August 1854 she was compelled to leave the country, and is now (1866) living in exile.

CHRISTOPHE, HENRY, was born about 1767 or 1768. The place of his birth seems to be uncertain, for St. Christopher, St. Croix, St. Domingo, and Granada are mentioned by different writers. He first attracted attention when a young man as a skilful cook at a tavern in Cape Town, St. Domingo. In 1790, on the insurrection of the blacks in the French part of that island, he joined the insurgents, who paid great respect to his gigantic stature, energy, and courage. As the negroes succeeded he was promoted in military rank. Toussaint Louverture, the generalissimo of the blacks, employed him to put down an insurrection headed by Moise, or Moses, that general's own nephew. Christophe, by employing consummate artifice, got possession of Moses, who was put to death by his uncle, on which Christophe succeeded to his command in the northern province of French St. Domingo. He subsequently suppressed other revolts which troubled the dawn of negro freedom. In 1802, when General Leclerc, brotherin-law of Napoleon Bonaparte, conducted a strong expedition from France to regain St. Domingo from the blacks, Christophe boldly defended Cape-Town; and when obliged to retreat he burnt a great part of the town, and carried off 3000 men, with whom he joined Toussaint Louverture. When Toussaint was treacherously seized and transported to Europe, Christophe rallied with Dessalines, who then became commander-in-chief of the blacks. Through the effects of climate and a fierce desultory warfare, in which no one was more distinguished than Christophe, there was no longer any French force in the island by 1805. Dessalines then assumed supreme power in Hayti, and advanced Christophe. Not long afterwards Dessalines was accused of abuse of powers, and Christophe, joining with the mulatto Pethion, got up an insurrection and murdered him in October 1806. Christophe was then proclaimed generalissimo and president for life of the republic of Hayti, and he named his confederate Pethion his lieutenant and governor in the southern provinces. The negroes, imitating the republican proceedings of their old masters the French, had a national assembly of their own, which met at Cape-Town, and gave plausible grounds for Pethion, who was probably only jealous of his superior, to quarrel with Christophe. The mulatto general accused the president of a design against the liberties of the republic; the president called the general an anarchist and a revolted subject, and taking up arms drove him back to Port-au-Prince, where Pethion however maintained himself and what he called his republic for nearly eleven years. •

In 1811 Christophe being undisputed master of the greater part of the country, had himself proclaimed king of Hayti, under the title of Henry I., royalty at the same time being made hereditary in his family. Still following the fashions of Paris, he then organised a court and an hereditary nobility, creating black dukes, counts, barons, &c. On June 2, 1812, he was publicly crowned, and the ceremonies, all after the French pattern, are said to have been very solemn and imposing. On the fall of Napoleon, the house of Bourbon entertained hopes of regaining their old colony, but they were frustrated by the power and skill of Christophe, who possessed several qualities that fitted him for government. On the death of Pethion, in 1818, he endeavoured to get possession of his state by force of arms, but he was beaten back with great loss by the republican blacks under their new president, General Boyer. These reverses, added to subsequent losses by fire, and other accidents, materially weakened him at a moment when his cruelty had rendered him generally unpopular at home, and the state of his health unfitted him for exertion. He was lying in bed from the consequences of an apoplectic stroke in SansSouci, a fine palace which he had built and fortified, when an insurrection burst around him, which had been aided by President Boyer. The insurgents had already proceeded to extreme measures, and the Duke of Marmalade (a significant title), one of the first dignitaries of the kingdom, had proclaimed the abolition of monarchy. Seeing that nobles, generals, officers, and men alike deserted him, to avoid being taken prisoner, Christophe shot himself through the heart on the 8th of October 1820. His widow and children, with his favourite, General Noël, took refuge in Fort Henri, but the garrison presently surrendered, when his eldest son, Noel, and some inferior officers were massacred.

During his reign Christophe entertained some enlightened views. At one time he encouraged education, and the printing of books and newspapers. He even made a code of laws, which he called 'Code Henri,' as Bonaparte had called his Code Napoléon.'

CHRISTOPHER, DUKE OF WÜRTEMBERG, was born in 1515. His early life was past in great troubles. In 1519-20 the confederated Suabian cities expelled his father Ulric from his dominions, and transferred the dukedom to the house of Austria. Christopher was carried to Vienna, where he narrowly escaped being made a prisoner by the Turks during their siege of that capital, under the great Solyman. In 1532 the Emperor Charles V. determined to confine him in a monastery in Spain, being more apprehensive of his talents than of those of his father the expelled duke, who was still living. When near to the Spanish frontier, Christopher escaped from his escort and fled to Bavaria, where his uncle, the reigning duke, and Philip the landgrave of Hesse, took up his own and his father's cause. The landgrave in 1534 defeated the Austrians in the battle of Laufen, and restored Duke Ulric, who was well received by his people, and thenceforward placed under the safe protection of the great Protestant

league of Schmalkalden. The recovery of Würtemberg was a great advantage on the side of the Protestants; but it was not until 1552, or two years after the death of Ulric and the accession of Christopher, that the Lutheran religion was fully established in that duchy. Finding, after a reign of two years, his authority was firmly established, Christopher proceeded to complete the work of the Reformation; and it is as a church reformer that he is honourably distinguished from the Protestant princes his contemporaries. The church property he appropriated to the purposes of education, and to the support of the ministers of the new religion. A great fund was formed out of it and kept sacred, under the name of the 'Würtemberg church property; the revenue derived from which sufficed to support what were called the Würtemberg cloister schools-destined for the education of the clergy-the great theological seminary at Tübingen, and other establishments for the instruction of the people. Christopher also extended the liberties of his subjects, and gave them a code of laws. After a popular and beneficial reign of eighteen years, he died in December 1568.

CHRYSIPPUS, son of Apollonius of Tarsus, was born at Soli in Cilicia, B.C. 280. He appears to have been driven to study by having, in some way, lost or squandered his patrimony. When he determined on devoting himself to philosophy he went to Athens, and attended the instructions of Cleanthes, whom he afterwards succeeded. (Strabo, xiii., p. 610, Casaub.) Cicero ('De Nat. Deor.' ii. 6; iii. 10), in common with other ancient writers, describes Chrysippus as a skilful and acute dialectician, and (i. 15) accounts him the most ingenious expositor of the Stoic dreams. Habits of industry probably gave him an advantage over his rivals. Diogenes Laertius reports, upon the authority of Diocles, a statement of Chrysippus's nurse, that he seldom wrote less than 500 lines a day. It appears however that he indulged largely in quotations; and the actual amount of his original labour in composition cannot be gathered from the number of his productions. He is said by Diogenes to have written upwards of 705 volumes, many on the same subject. Cicero (Tusc. Quæst.' i. 108) gives him the character of a careful collector of facts. After Zeno he was considered the main prop of the Porch (Cic. Acad. Quæst.' iv. 75); and allusions are frequently made to the estimation in which he was held. (Juvenal, ‘Sat.' ii. 5.; xiii. 184; Horace, 'Epist.' i. 2, 4.) Chrysippus sometimes exposed himself to the attacks of his enemies, Carneades in particular, by defending two opposite sides of the same question: but the arguments which were good in his were good also in others' hands. He frequently succeeded in entangling his hearers by the use of the logical formsorites,' which is said to have been invented by him, and is called by Persius (Sat. vi. 80) 'Chrysippus's heap.' Sorites (owpeírns) means 'a heap,' and is in logic a heap of propositions in the syllogistic form. (Cic. Acad. Quæst.' iv. 16; Whately, 'Logic,' p. 122.) Chrysippus did not spare his adversaries in his replies to their arguments; and some anecdotes which are told of him seem to show that he occasionally overstepped the bounds of moderation. Notwithstanding this, his style of argumentation was so much admired, that it was said, if the gods themselves were to use a system of logic, they would adopt that of Chrysippus.

Chrysippus appears to have held substantially all the main doctrines of the Stoic theology, though in some minute particulars he is said to have differed from Zeno and Cleanthes: the charges of impiety made against him are probably to be ascribed only to a peculiar method of advocating his opinions. He died, apparently from an apoplectic fit, at the age of seventy-three, B.C. 207.

(Diogenes Laertius, book vii., Life of Chrysippus; Fabricii, Bibliotheca Græca, vol. ii., pp. 392-93.)

CHRYSOLO'RAS, MANUEL, a learned Byzantine of the 14th century, was sent to Italy about 1397, by the Emperor Manuel Palæologus, to request the assistance of the Venetians and the pope, and the other Christian princes, against the Turks. Having fulfilled his mission, he settled at Venice, where he gave lessons in the Greek language. He afterwards taught the same at Florence, Pavia, and lastly at Rome, where he grew into favour with the papal court, and was sent to the council assembled at Constance, where he died in 1415. Poggio Bracciolini, Leonardo Bruni, and Filelfo, were the most distinguished pupils of Chrysoloras in Greek. Chrysoloras wrote a Greek grammar (entitled 'Epwтnuara, 'Questions'), which was one of the first published in Italy, and was afterwards printed at Ferrara in 1509. He also wrote several epistles in Latin, in one of which, addressed to the Prince John Palæologus, son of Manuel, he draws an eloquent comparison between Constantinople and Rome, which has been often quoted. Chrysoloras ranks among the restorers of classical learning in Italy.

JOHN CHRYSOLORAS, the nephew of Manuel, taught Greek in Italy: he returned to Constantinople, where he died, about A.D. 1427.

DEMETRIUS CHRYSOLORAS, probably a native of Thessalonica, wrote on philosophy and theology. Some letters of his to the Emperor Manuel Palæologus, in whose service he was, and who employed him on several missions of importance, still exist in manuscript in the Bodleian, Oxford, and in the Royal Library at Paris. There are also manuscripts of several works by him, but they are of no importance.

CHRYSOSTOM, ST. JOHN (xpvσóσтoμos, that is, the goldenmouthed), the most renowned of the Greek fathers, was born of noble and very opulent parents, A.D. 354 (some writers say 344 and 317), at