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wrote various astronomical treatises and papers, mostly in the memoirs of the Italian Society, which should be consulted from the beginning to find them. The title of these memoirs is 'Memorie di Matematica e Fisica della Società Italiana, Modena,' quarto.

Cagnoli's trigonometry is one of those invaluable works which bring up the state of a science completely to the time at which it is written, and furnish those who want the means of application with varied stores of methods. Elementary writers on the practical parts of mathematics are among the last to adapt their rules to the actual state of science, unless somebody, who is well versed in the theory, performs the service which Cagnoli did for trigonometry. The consequence has been, that works on that subject have assumed a better form, and the constant reference which has been made to Cagnoli's treatise is the test of the frequency with which it has been used. The late Professor Woodhouse, whose treatise on trigonometry has powerfully contributed to foster a taste for analysis in this country, seems, on a smaller scale to have taken Cagnoli for his model. The work we speak of is a quarto of 500 pages (in the French translation, the second edition of which is augmented by the author's communications), and treats very largely of the application of trigonometry to astronomy and geodesy.

CAHEN, SAMUEL, was born on the 4th of August, 1796, at Metz, the capital of the French department of Moselle. His parents were Jews, and he was destined by them for the rabbinate, or learned profession. At the age of fourteen he was sent to Mainz, in order to complete his studies under the chief rabbi of that city. After passing some time in Germany as a private teacher, he returned to France, and in 1822 fixed his residence in Paris, where, from 1823 to 1836 he was the conductor of the Jewish consistorial school of that city. In 1824 he published at Paris a 'Cours de Lecture Hébraïque, ou Méthode Facile pour apprendre seul et en peu de Temps à lire l'Hébreu' (2nd edition, 1842); and in 1836 a 'Manuel d'Histoire Universelle depuis le Commencement du Monde jusqu'en 1836.' In 1840 he commenced the monthly periodical called Archives Israelites de France;' and in 1842 published at Metz 'Exercises Élémentaires sur la Langue Hébraïque;' but his great work is the translation of the Old Testament into French, 'La Bible, Traduction Nouvelle, avec l'Hébreu en regard' (with the Hebrew on the opposite pages), 20 vols. 8vo, which occupied him from 1831 to 1851. [See SUPPLEMENT.]

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CAILLET, GUILLAUME, a French peasant, was the leader of the ⚫insurrection called the Jacquerie, which broke out in France in 1358. Caillet was a native of Mello, a small place in the Beauvoisin, a district so named from the city of Beauvais, in the old province of Isle-deFrance, adjoining Picardie. At this time the French king Jean II. was a prisoner in England, having been taken at the battle of Poictiers in 1356. The insurrectionists consisted almost entirely of peasantry, and their leader Caillet received or assumed the name of Jacques Bonhomme (James Good-Man), which was applied in contempt to the lower classes, and hence the persons engaged in this outbreak were called Jacques, and the insurrection itself La Jacquerie. The rising of the peasants commenced, according to the 'Chroniques de France, on the 21st of May 1358, and was of a very ferocious character. It is stated by the writers of the time, Froissart and others, to have been caused by the oppressions of the feudal lords and landed gentry, which, always severe, had increased during the disturbed period of the king's captivity till they had become intolerable. The lawless bands were at first few in number, and were armed only with knives and with sticks shod with iron, but they rapidly increased, and ultimately extended throughout Picardie and into the neighbouring provinces, and are said to have amounted to 100,000. Their object was, as they openly professed, to destroy the whole race of the feudal nobility and gentry as beings who ought to be no longer suffered to exist. The peasants forced their way into the castles and houses, plundered and then burnt them, and not only massacred the inhabitants of both sexes and every age, but inflicted cruelties not fit to be described. At length, about the end of the same year 1358, the insurrectionists were opposed and overcome by the combined forces of the lords of Picardie, Brabant, and Flanders, having the Dauphin of France, afterwards Charles V., at their head. Caillet himself was taken prisoner by the king of Navarre, and was beheaded in 1359.

* CAILLIAUD, FRÉDÉRIC, was born in 1787 at Nantes, in the French department of Loire-Inférieure. In 1809 he removed to Paris for the purpose of prosecuting his studies in geology and mineralogy. He afterwards travelled in Holland, Italy, Sicily, Greece, and Turkey. In 1815 he visited Egypt, where he was well received by the pasha, Mohammed Ali, by whom he was employed on a voyage of exploration up the Nile. He spent some time in Nubia, and discovered on Mount Zabarah the emerald mines which had formerly been celebrated, and which had been wrought under the government of the Ptolemies. He explored the vast excavations which had been made in working the mines, and found large quantities of tools and other articles which had been used by the workmen, and left there. He himself conducted the mining operations for some time, and transmitted to the pasha ten pounds' weight of emeralds. From communications with the Arabs he ascertained one of the lines of route from the Nile to the Red Sea by which the commerce between Egypt and India was formerly carried on. He visited the ruins of Thebes several times, and obtained many interesting antiquities, and copied a large number of inscriptions.

CAIUS, DR. JOHN.

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M. Cailliaud returned to Paris in 1819, but went back to Egypt before the end of the same year for the purpose of extending his travels. He left his journals, portfolios, and other materials, with M. Jomard, who was thus enabled to compile the Voyage à l'Oasis de Thèbes, et dans les Déserts situés à l'Orient et à l'Occident de la Thébaïde, fait pendant les Années 1815, 1816, 1817, et 1818,' 2 vols. folio, one of text and one of plates, Paris, 1821.

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M. Cailliaud, after his return to Egypt, performed a difficult and exhausting journey across the desert which lies to the west of Egypt, as far as the oasis of Siwah, where he visited the remains of the famous temple of Ammon. He had been about four months employed here and in visiting the other oases of the desert, when he learned that the pasha was preparing an expedition to Upper Nubia, which was to be placed under the conduct of his son Ismail. M. Cailliaud immediately proceeded to Cairo, where he obtained the pasha's permission to join the expedition. He went with it as far as 10° N. lat., which was the farthest point south to which it advanced. M. Cailliaud is considered to have discovered at Assour, above the confluence of the Taccazzé with the Nile, the ruins of the ancient city of Meröe. The pasha's son Ismail died here. In 1822 Cailliaud returned to Paris, and from the materials furnished by him M. Jomard compiled the Voyage à l'Oasis de Syouah,' 1 vol. folio, with many plates. The results however of these latter journeys were afterwar is published by M. Cailliaud, himself, in the Voyage à Méroé, au Fleuve Blanc, au delà de Fazoql, dans le Midi du Royaume de Sennâr, à Syouah, et dans les Cinq autres Oases, fait dans les Années 1819, 1820, 1821, et 1822,' Paris, 1826-27, 4 vols. 8vo, with a folio volume of plates. In 1831 he published a splendid volume in small folio, with plates beautifully coloured, entitled 'Reserches sur les Arts et Métiers, les Usages, et la Vie Civile et Domestique, des Anciens Peuples de l'Egypte, des la Nubie, et de l'Etiopie, suivies de Détails sur les Moeurs et Coutumes des Peuples Modernes des mêmes Contrées. M. Cailliaud afterwards retired to his native town of Nantes, having, with the cross of the Legion of Honour, received the appointment of conservator of the Museum there. 1856 he published a Mémoire sur les mollusques perforants.' CAIN was the eldest son of Adam. His history, with that of his brother Abel, is contained in the fourth chapter of Genesis. Cain, we are told, was a tiller of the ground, while Abel was a keeper of sheep. The brothers offered sacrifices together, Cain's offering being the fruit of the earth, and that of Abel the firstlings of his flock. The offering of Abel alone was accepted, as being an act of faith [ABEL], and Cain being very wroth, when they were together in the field, "rose up against Abel his brother and slew him." For this, the first shedding of human blood, Cain was driven forth "a fugitive and a vagabond in the earth." But on his crying out to the Lord that his punishment was greater than he could bear, "the Lord set a mark upon him, lest any finding him should kill him,”—or, as it is perhaps to be understood, gave him a token or assurance that none who found him should kill him. Cain went and dwelt in the land of Nod on the east of Eden, and had a son, Enoch, after whom he named a city or settlement which he subsequently built. Of the remainder of Cain's life, or of its length, nothing is told in Scripture: the Talmudists and some early Christian writers have related many absurd fables and traditions respecting his future career and the manner of his death, which however it would serve no good purpose to repeat here. It will also be enough to mention that in the 2nd century of the Christian era, a sect of heretics, who called themselves, or were called, Cainites, is said by ancient writers to have sprung up and numbered many adherents. They are stated to have held the person of Cain in great veneration, and to have adopted many very abominable practices as well as opinions: they are regarded as a minor sect of Gnostics. Lardner gives an account of them in his History of Heretics,' but at the same time questions the existence of any such sect. CAIUS. [GAIUS.]

CAIUS, DR. JOHN, was born at Norwich, October 6, 1510. His real name was Kaye, or Key, which he Latinised by Caius. After receiving the first rudiments of learning in his native city, he was sent to Gonville Hall, in the University of Cambridge. He took the degrees of B.A. and M.A. at the usual times, and was chosen fellow of his college in 1533. His literary labours began at the age of twenty by a translation into English of St. Chrysostom, De Modo orandi Deum.' This was followed by a translation (somewhat abridged) of Erasmus, De verâ Theologia.' His third production was a translation of Erasmus's paraphrase upon the epistle of St. Jude. His excuse for writing in English is curious enough :-"These I did in Englishe the rather because at that tyme men ware not so geuen all to Englishe, but that they dyd fauoure and mayteine good learning conteined in tongues and sciences, and did also study and apply diligently the same themselves. Therfore I thought no hurte done. Sence that time diuerse other thynges I haue written, but with entente neuer more to write in the Englishe tongue, partly because the commoditie of that which is so written passeth not the compasse of Englande, but remaineth enclosed within the seas," &c. (A Counseill against the Sweat,' fol. 4.)

It was probably soon after this that he travelled into Italy, where he remained several years. He studied medicine at Padua under Baptista Montanus and Vesalius, and took the degree of Doctor at Bologna. In 1542 he gave lectures at Padua on the Greek text of Aristotle in conjunction with Realdus Columbus, the salary being paid

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by some noble Venetians. The following year he made the tour of Italy, visiting the most celebrated libraries, and collating manuscripts in order to improve the text of Galen and Celsus. At Pisa he attended the medical lectures of Matthæus Curtius, and then returned home through France and Germany. On his return he was incorporated Doctor of Physic at Cambridge, and practised with great distinction at Shrewsbury and Norwich. By the appointment of Henry VIII. he read lectures on anatomy to the Company of Surgeons; but he does not appear to have settled in London till a later period, when he was made physician to Edward VI. He retained his appointment under Mary and Elizabeth. In 1547 Dr. Caius became a Fellow of the College of Physicians, and was ever a strenuous upholder of its rights and interests. A difference having arisen between the physicians and surgeons in the reign of Elizabeth as to whether the latter might administer internal remedies in cases where their manual assistance was required, Dr. Caius, then president, was summoned to appear before the lord mayor and others of the queen's delegates. On this occasion he pleaded the physicians' cause so ably that, although the surgeons were supported by the Bishop of London and the Master of the Rolls, it was unanimously agreed by the commissioners that it was unlawful for the surgeons to practise medically in such cases. Dr. Caius was president of the College of Physicians for more than seven years. He left behind him a book of the college annais, from 1555 to 1572, written with his own hand in a clear Latin style. Having obtained permission from Queen Mary, with whom he was much in favour, to advance Gonville Hall into a college, which still bears his name, he accepted the mastership of the college, and passed the last years of his life in it. Before his death he was reduced to a state of great weakness; and it appears from the following quaint passage in Dr. Mouffet's Health's Improvement, or Rules concerning Food, that he attempted to sustain his flagging powers by reverting to the food of infancy:-"What made Dr. Caius in his last sickness so peevish and so full of frets at Cambridge, when he sucked one woman (whom I spare to name) froward of conditions and of bad diet; and, contrariwise, so quiet and well when he sucked another of contrary dispositions? Verily, the diversity of their milks and conditions, which being contrary one to the other, wrought also in him that sucked them contrary effects."

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Dr. Caius died July 29, 1573, in the sixty-third year of his age, and was buried in the chapel of his own college. His monument bears the pithy inscription, 'Fui Caius.'

The most interesting of the works of Dr. Caius is his treatise on the sweating sickness. The original edition is a small black letter and extremely scarce duodecimo of thirty-nine folios, 'imprinted at London by Richard Grafton, printer to the kynges maiestie. Anno Do. 1552.' It is entitled 'A boke, or counseill against the disease commonly called the sweate, or sweatyng sicknesse. Made by Jhon Caius, doctour in phisicke.' This was intended for the public in general; but in 1556 the author published it in an enlarged form, and in the Latin language, under the title 'De Ephemerâ Britannicâ.' The epidemic described by Caius was that of 1551, the fifth and last of the kind. It was an intense fever, of which the crisis consisted in a profuse perspiration. The death of the patient often followed two or three hours after this symptom, but if he survived the first attack of the disease twenty-four hours he was safe.

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The works of Dr. Caius are exceedingly numerous, and display his talents as a critic, a linguist, a naturalist, and an antiquary, as well as a physician. His original works consist of treatises-De Medendi Methodo,' De Ephemera Britannicâ,' 'De Ephemerâ Britannicâ ad Populum Britannicum,' 'De Antiquitate Cantabrig. Academiæ, 'De Historiâ Cantabrig. Academiæ,' De Canibus Britannicis,' 'De Rariorum Animalium atque Stirpium Historiâ,' ' De Symphoniâ Vocum Britannicarum,' 'De Thermis Britannicis,' 'De libris Galeni qui non extant,' 'De Antiquis Britannia Urbibus,' 'De Libris propriis,' 'De Pronunciatione Græcæ et Latina Linguæ cum Scriptione Novâ,' 'De Annalibus Collegii Medicinæ Lond.,' 'De Annalibus Collegii Gonevilli et Caii,' 'Compendium Erasmi Libri de verâ Theologia.' He also edited, translated, and commented upon many pieces of Hippocrates, Galen, and others. During his life, and for many years after his death, the writings of Dr. Caius were regarded with deep veneration. Several of his treatises were reprinted under the superintendence of Dr. Jebb, London, 1729, 8vo; and his treatise 'De Ephemerâ Britannicâ' was edited by Dr. J. F. C. Hecker, Berolini, 1833, 12mo.

(Hutchinson, Biographia Medica; Aikin, Biographical Memoirs of Medicine in Great Britain; Dr. J. F. C. Hecker, Der Englische Schweiss.)

CALAMIS, a very celebrated Greek sculptor, of the 5th century before Christ. Neither his native place nor the exact period of his career is known; he was however contemporary with Phidias, but probably his senior in years, as, according to Cicero and Quintilian, who probably expressed the general opinion, notwithstanding the general excellence of his works, there was a hardness in his style. He worked in various styles, in marble, in bronze, and ivory, and as an engraver in gold. He was also very famous for his horses, in which, Pliny says, he was without a rival.

Many works by Calamis are mentioned in ancient writers, Greek and Latin, but one in particular claims attention; this is the 'Apollo' of the Servilian gardens at Rome, mentioned by Pliny, and by some

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supposed to be the 'Apollo Belvedere' of the Vatican at Rome. This supposition however completely sets aside the criticisms of Cicero and Quintilian upon the style of Calamis, for this work, so far from being hard, would be effeminately delicate for any male character below a divinity. Calamis made two other statues of 'Apollo:' the 'Apollo Alexikakos' ('Deliverer from Evil'), which Pausanias saw at Athens; and the colossal 'Apollo,' made for the city of Apollonia in Illyricum, and which, according to Strabo, was brought to Rome by Lucullus, and placed in the Capitol. Junius and Harduin supposed that Pliny and Pausanias speak of the same work; but it is not at all probable that a work which was in Rome in Pliny's time would be in Athens in the time of Pausanias. This inconsistency has been pointed out before; but many have been misled by the opinion, and it seems to have sug gested the idea which Visconti and Flaxman have adopted, that the Apollo Belvedere' and the 'Apollo Alexikakos' of Calamis are the same, or at least that the former is a marble copy of the bronze original by Calamis. Sillig supposes that the statue mentioned by Pausanias must have been of bronze, because it was placed in the open air; this does not follow however, as many of the ancient Greek marbles were placed in the open air. It was dedicated in honour of Apollo after the delivery of Athens from the plague, in Ol. 87. 4 (B.c. 429), during the Peloponnesian war. It is the latest work by Calamis mentioned, and must have been made at least three or four years after the death of Phidias. His earliest work which is noticed is a pair of bronze horses mounted by boys, for the triumphal car of Onatas, placed by Deinomenes, the son of Hiero, at Olympia, in Ol. 78. 2 (B.c. 467), in commemoration of Hiero's victory at the Olympic games, twelve years after the battle of Marathon.

Lucian also, in his description of Panthea, has recourse to the aid of Calamis. He takes some of Panthea's charms from a statue of Sosandra by Calamis, which he mentions also in his 'Hetærean Colloquies' as a paragon of beauty. Many other works by Calamis are mentioned by ancient writers-as an Esculapius' at Corinth, a Victory' at Elis, a 'Bacchus' and a 'Mercury' at Tanagra, a ‘Venus' at Athens, Jupiter Ammon' at Thebes, 'Hermione' at Delphi, &c. (Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxiii. 12, xxxiv. 8, xxxvi. 4; Pausanias, i. 3; Lucian, Imag. 6, Dial. Meretr. iii.; Cicero, Brutus, 18; Quintilian, Inst. Orator., xii. 10; Strabo, vii. 491; Junius, Catal. Artificum; Sillig, Catal. Artificum; Thiersch, Epochen der Bildenden Kunst, &c.) CALAMY, EDMUND, was born in London in 1600. He entered Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, at the age of fifteen, and was honourably distinguished for his scholarship; but having incurred the resentment of the Arminian party by his opposition to their opinions, he was disappointed in obtaining a fellowship. His conduct however attracted the notice of the Bishop of Ely, Dr. Felton, who made him his domestic chaplain, and gave him the living of Swaffham Prior, in Cambridgeshire. Calamy lived with the bishop till his death. Soon after this event, in 1626, he resigned his vicarage, having been appointed one of the lecturers of Bury St. Edmunds. For the ten years that he officiated in this capacity he ranked among the Conformists, though of that class which was opposed to the measures of the high church party. When at length Bishop Wren's Articles' were published, and the order for reading the Book of Sports' began to be enforced, he publicly declared his objections to them, and left the diocese. Thirty other clergymen did the same. Soon afterwards he was presented to the valuable rectory of Rochford in Essex ; but this place was so unhealthy that it brought on a quartan ague, from which he never perfectly recovered, and he was compelled to quit it. In 1639, being chosen minister of the church of St. Mary, Aldermanbury, he removed to the metropolis, having separated from the Church, and openly avowed his attachment to the Presbyterian discipline. In the contentious controversies of that period on the subject of ecclesiastical affairs, Mr. Calamy bore a distinguished part. His opinions against episcopacy were stated in a work, very popular in its day, entitled 'Smectymnuus,' written in answer to Bishop Hall's Divine Right of Episcopacy.' This composition was the work of five individuals-S. Marshal, E. Calamy, T. Young, M. Newcomen, and W. Spurstow-the initial letters of whose names were put together to form this singular title. As a preacher Mr. Calamy was greatly admired, and listened to by persons of the first distinction during the twenty years that he officiated in St. Mary's. His celebrity was so well established by his writings, as well as by the distinguished station which he occupied among the ministers in the metropolis, that he was one of the divines appointed by the House of Lords in 1641 to devise a plan for reconciling the differences which then divided the church, in relation to ecclesiastical discipline. This led to the Savoy conference, at which he appeared in support of some alterations in the Liturgy, and replied to the reasons urged against them by the episcopal divines.

Like most of the Presbyterian clergy, he was averse to the execution of the king, and to the usurpation of Cromwell; during whose ascendancy he held himself aloof from public affairs, resisted his proposition for a single government, and did not scruple to declare his attachment to the dethroned prince. Accordingly he was among the foremost to encourage and promote the efforts that were made for the restoration of Charles. He strongly recommended it in a sermon preached before the House of Commons, on the day prior to that on

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which the House resolved to invite the king back to his kingdom; and he was one of those deputed to meet Charles in Holland with the congratulations of the nation. On his majesty's return, he appointed Mr. Calamy one of his chaplains; the duty of which office, owing to prevailing animosities, he performed, it is generally said, no more than once, but Pepys in his Diary,' June 6, 1660, notes that "his letters tell him that Mr. Calamy had preached before the king in a surplice:" he indeed adds a note, "this I heard afterwards to be false," but he appears to mean the use of the surplice. It is certain that Calamy preached once subsequently. Pepys notes under August 12, 1660, "(Lord's Day.) To White Hall Chapel, where Mr. Calamy preached, and made a good sermon, upon these words, To whom much is given, of him much is required.' He was very officious with his three reverences to the king, as others do." It is evident that the king's Presbyterian chaplain was closely watched; but it appears also evident, judging from his text, that if he was ready to pay all the usual marks of reverence to his majesty, he was not disposed to shrink from reminding him of the duties as well rs the privileges which his exalted position devolved upon him. Besides his chaplaincy Calamy was offered the bishopric of Lichfield and Coventry, which it is thought he would have accepted, if he could have subscribed to the terms of the king's declaration. His moderation was such, that he appeared only desirous of removing those restrictions which affected the Presbyterian clergy, accompanied with such reforms in the services of the church as would have allowed a conscientious performance of their pastoral duties. But finding the temper of the high Church party set upon their rejection by acts of further restraint and intolerance, he seized upon the opportunity of the passing of the Act of Uniformity to resign his living. Being well received at court, his friends recommended him to petition for an indulgence; but his request was fruitless. He did not, like some of the other ejected ministers, attempt to assemble a congregation elsewhere, but still continued to attend the church in which he had so long officiated. On one of these occasions, when no clergyman attended, some of his friends requested him to preach. After some hesitation he ascended the desk, from which it had always been his custom to deliver his discourses, and preached upon the concern of old Eli for the ark of God, into which he introduced some matter that touched upon recent events; which being deemed seditious, he was committed to Newgate, where he lay, until the outcry raised by his friends induced the king to order his liberation. He lived to see London in ashes; which event had such an eff ct upon his nerves, that he survived the melancholy spectacle little more than a month. He died October 29, 1666. Mr. Calamy was considered an able theologian. His publications consist of single sermons preached upon particular occasions, and a vindication of himself against an attack made upon him by Mr. Burton, entitled The Godly Man's Ark, or a City of Refuge in the Day of his Distress.' Two of Mr. Calamy's sons, who were educated at Cambridge for the church, took opposite sides on the disputed points of ecclesiastical affairs; the eldest, Edmund, having, after his ejectment from his living, become a decided nonconformist; while his other son, Dr. Benjamin Calamy, not only adhered to the high church party, but wrote in its defence A Discourse against a Scrupulous Conscience; the tenour of which is, to stigmatise as crime the act of separating from the church.

A grandson of Mr. Calamy was a celebrated nonconformist divine, and is the well-known biographer of the ejected ministers; and also of Baxter's Life and Times. This gentleman, also called Edmund, after his father and grandfather, on a visit to Scotland in 1709, received the decree of Doctor in Divinity from each of the universities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and Glasgow. He was born in 1671, and died June 3, 1732.

CALA'NUS, an Indian philosopher of the sect called by the Greeks Gymnosophists, or naked philosophers.' Alexander the Great, in the course of his Indian expedition, met with a body of these singular men, and being desirous of speaking with them, he deputed Onesicritus to invite them to visit him. Dandamis, their chief, refused to go himself or to allow any of his followers to go, saying that he was as much the son of Jupiter as Alexander, and that he wanted nothing from Alexander, but was quite satisfied with what he had. Calanus (Plutarch says his real name was Sphines, and that Calanus was a name given to him by the Greeks from his custom of using the word Kaλe instead of xaîpe in saluting) was the only one who could be prevailed upon; and, amidst the reproaches of his colleagues, he consented to accompany Alexander in his expedition. On arriving at Pasargada in Persis he fell ill. He had never been ill before, and would not now submit to be nursed or doctored, but insisted on being burnt. After many fruitless endeavours to dissuade him from his resolution, Alexander ordered a splendid pile to be raised, and a golden couch to be placed on it by Ptolemæus, son of Lagus. Calanus was driven in a carriage to the spot, crowned after the Indian fashion, and chaunting hymns to the gods in the Indian tongue, he mounted the pile, and laid himself down in the sight of the whole army, and continued motionless amidst the flames. As soon as the fire had been kindled, trumpets were sounded, and it is said that even the elephants joined the army in raising a war-shout in honour of Calanus. The various ornaments with which Alexander had ordered the pile to be decorated were dis

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tributed to those who were present. While Calanus was riding to the pile, Alexander asked him if he had any requests to make. He replied, "No; I shall see you soon in Babylon." Alexander died soon after in Babylon, B.C. 323. Calanus was in his seventy-third year when he died. (Strabo, xv. 1; Arrian, vii.; Cicero, De Div.,' i. 23; Valer. Max. i. 8.) CALDARA. [CARAVAGGIO.]

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CALDAS, FRANCISCO JOSÉ DE, born at Popayan in New Granada, about 1773, deserves notice as an example not common any where, but very unusual in South America, of a man who unaided by books or teachers arrived at a very respectable position as a man of science. His studies and researches included botany, physical geography, mechanics, and astronomy. Before Humboldt had opened the region of the Andes to the scientific world, Caldas had constructed with his own hands a barometer and other instruments, and explored a considerable tract, and taken the altitude of several of the loftiest summits of that vast range. When Mutis made his celebrated exploration of New Granada, Caldas rendered him important assistance; the admeasurements of Chimborazo and some other peaks were made by him. About 1805 or 1806 he received the appointment of director of the observatory of Santa Fé de Bogota, His chief scientific labours are embodied in the 'Semenario de la Nueva Granada,' of which he published the first number in 1807, and which ultimately formed two 4to volumes. Caldas having eagerly embraced the cause of independence, unfortunately fell into the hands of Morillo, who caused him to be executed October 30, 1816. The scientific labours of Caldas have been highly praised by several European savants, especially by Humboldt. A new edition of the Semenario,' augmented by the addition of several of Caldas's inedited writings, was published at Paris under the care of M. A. Lasserre in 1849. (Acosta, Breve Noticia sobre F. de Caldas; Nouvelle Biog. Univ.)

CALDERA'RI, OTTO'NE, was born of a noble family at Vicenza in 1730. Although that city is indebted to him for many important additions to its previous architectural attractions, little has been told respecting his life. His enthusiasm for architecture is said to have been first excited by viewing the Basilica of Vicenza by moonlight, which made so powerful an impression upon him that he thenceforth devoted himself to the study. One of his earliest recorded works was the casino erected by him near Vicenza, in 1772, for the Count AntiSola, which has a very extended front towards the gardens, with terraces uniting the house to the wings. In 1773 he built the small Palazzo Bonini at Vicenza, with a façade of two orders, Doric and Ionic (of five intercolumns), surmounted by an attic; it is a most decided imitation of Palladio. The Palazzo Cordellina (1776) at Vicenza, which is esteemed by his editors his "capo d'opera," differs very little from the preceding in the style of its façade, which presents the same orders. The Villa Porto at Vivaro, five miles from Vicenza, erected in 1778, is a happier specimen of his talent, and the Doric colonnades between the body and wings, backed by a screen wall with openings in it, produce much scenic effect. In 1782 he built the Palazzo Loschi at Vicenza, a Corinthian order and attic on a rusticated basement; in 1785 the Casino Todaro, and also the Palazzi Quinto and Salvi, in the same city. Nor was Vicenza alone the scene of his architectural labours, for he designed the beautiful atrium of the Seminario at Verona, the Villa Capra, at Marano, and the Casa Cocastelli in the Mantuan territory.

Count Calderari belonged to the principal academies and societies in Europe, and was elected by the French Institute expressly as being "foremost among the Italian architects of that day;" nor can it be denied that he is entitled to the admiration of those who hold Palladio to be a pattern of excellence. He died at Vicenza, October 26, 1803, and his éloge was pronounced by Diedo, secretary to the Academy of Fine Arts, Venice, and the chief editor of his 'Opere di Architettura,' &c., 2 vols. folio, 1808-17.

CALDERON DE LA BARCA, DON PEDRO, a great Spanish dramatist, born of noble parents at Madrid, in 1601, suggests a striking parallel with Lope de Vega, his celebrated countryman and forerunner in the same career. Both were wonderfully precocious: Lope wrote plays at the age of eleven or twelve, and Calderon exhibited no inferior genius at thirteen in his Carro del Cielo' (the Heavenly Chariot). Both devoted the vigour of life to the military profession, and their maturity to the ecclesiastical order; and the poetic talent of both continued to advanced age. Both of them acquired reputation and even affluence from a gift proverbially doomed to penury, and at the most hardly promising more than posthumous renown.

The

Lope and Calderon gave the law to the Spanish theatre. With all their irregularity, they both exhibit a singular mixture of sublimity and absurdity, with frequent flashes of genius, and passages of striking truth to nature; thus frequently redeeming their numerous faults, and making amends for many to us now very ridiculous scenes. fertility of these two writers is not the least surprising part of their history. Lope added 2000, and Calderon 500 pieces at least to the national dramatic stock. Their success could not fail to call forth numerous imitators at home and abroad: Corneille, there is little doubt, formed his Heraclius upon the play of Calderon, as he certainly took his Cid and his Menteur from Guillermo de Castro. Molière's 'Femmes savantes' was suggested by Calderon's 'No hai burlas con el Amor' (Love is no Joke); and Scarron grossly disfigured, under the

CALDERON, DE LA BARCA, DON PEDRO.

title of La fausse Apparence,' Calderon's 'Nunca lo peor es cierto' (The worst is never true). The French translations by Linguet doubtless contributed largely to produce this effect. On Linguet's 'Viol puni,' a trauslation of Calderon's 'Alcalde de Zalamea,' the wellknown Collet d'Herbois built his Paysan magistrat.' Not to mention numerous other instances of a similar kind, it should not be forgotten that Calderon's 'Secreto a voces' (The published Secret) has appeared in the Italian, French, and German languages. Calderon's talents, which had been early manifested at school under the Jesuits, developed at Salamanca, and already admired in the Spanish possessions of Italy and the Low Countries, were at last encouraged by the patronage of Philip IV., who bestowed on him a knighthood of Santiago in 1636; invited him to Madrid in 1640 to write the 'Certamen de Amor y Zelos' (the Contest between Love and Jealousy), a sort of festival to be performed on the lake of BuenRetiro; and soon raised his allowance to an escudo more per day. Subsequently, in 1649, he intrusted to his taste and ingenuity the plan and directions of some triumphal arches, under which the royal bride Mary Anna of Austria was to pass. At the age of fifty Calderon entered the church, and two years afterwards, the king bestowed on him a chaplaincy of Toledo. In 1663 he gave him another similar piece of preferment, with a handsome pension charged on the revenue of Sicily, and other similar acknowledgments of his services and merits. During the long period of thirty-seven years he wrote, by special commission of the municipality of Madrid, and of other cities, such as Toledo, Sevilla, and Granada, about 100 Autos Sacramentales,' or sacred pieces, which resemble those of the 16th century, commonly called Mysteries.' The 'Autos' of Calderon soon superseded those of all previous Spanish authors; and to their composition the poet devoted the remaining thirty years of his life after he had entered the ecclesiastical profession. In his eightieth year he wrote his 'Hado y Divisa.' As the booksellers were now selling spurious works under his name, he was urged by the Duke of Veraguas to make a true list of all his works, but he merely sent a list of his 'Autos,' expressing, on religious grounds, very little concern for the rest.

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Some of the 'Autos' of Calderon, especially that entitled 'La Devocion de la Cruz' (the Devotion of the Cross, meaning its miracles), are the best productions of the kind. Augustus Schlegel bas translated this work, with some of the best of his dramas, such as 'El Principe constante,' a tragedy which might be called the Lusitanian Regulus for its Portuguese lofty subject. It is indeed Calderon's masterpiece, and displays the full lustre of his genius. He wrote likewise a poem in octaves on the Novísimos,' or 'Postrimerias' (the old scholastic and ascetic collective denomination of death, judgment, heaven, and hell). There is also among his works a discourse on painting, La Nobleza de la Pintura;' another in vindication of the stage, 'Defensa de la Comedia;' and many songs, sonnets, and ballads, with numerous short poems to which the highest prizes were adjudged

on various occasions.

The date of Calderon's death is variously stated, but that of 1681, on the 25th of May, Whitsuntide day, is shown to be correct by documents quoted in the introduction to Calderon's comedies lioteca de Autores Españoles.' t. vii., p xxxiii.).

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the six last a great number of his 'Autos Sacramentales.' They were reprinted at Madrid in 1726 and 1760 in 10 vols. 4to. A collection of his Autos' appeared also at Madrid in 1759 in 6 vols. 4to. In 1830 George Keil published at Leipzig a splendid edition of Calderon in 5 vols. 8vo; other editions of his plays have since been published. The Teatro Español,' published by La Huerta, gives but a partial idea of Calderon's talent; for he has selected the Comedias de Capa y Espada,' two only excepted, one of which is styled 'heroica,' although it belongs to the mythological class.

CALDERWOOD, DAVID, was a native of Scotland, and was brought up to the church. He was born in 1575. In 1604 he became the minister of the parish of Crelling in the south of Scotland, where he was greatly respected.

When James I. of England visited Scotland in 1617 for the purpose of introducing, by the aid of a Scottish parliament and the general assembly, certain legal enactments, the object of which was to bring the Scottish church into conformity with the church of England, Calderwood was one of those who were most strenuous in their opposition. He and other ministers of the church having signed a protest against the proposed measures, they were sunmoned before a court of high commission in which the king himself presided. Persecution and threats having both failed to make Calderwood change his opinions, he was thrown into prison, and was afterwards banished from the kingdom. He went to Holland, where in 1621-23, he published in 4to a work in Latin, entitled 'Altare Damascenum,' &c., in which he enters into a full examination of the principles of the Church of England, its government, ceremonies, and connection with the state. The work made a great impression at the time, and was translated into English under the title of The Altar of Damascus, or the Pattern of the English Hierarchy and Church, obtruded upon the Church of Scotland,' 12mo, 1621. A report having been spread that Calderwood was dead, a man named Patrick Scot published a pretended recantation, with the title Calderwood's Recantation, directed to such in Scotland as refuse Conformity to the Ordinances of the Church,' London, 1622. It was soon discovered to be a base forgery, and the king himself was accused of having lent his assistance in writing it. Calderwood in the meantime had returned secretly to Scotland, where he lived some years in concealment. He collected the materials for a 'History of the Church of Scotland,' which are preserved in manuscript in the Advocates Library, Edinburgh, in 6 vols. folio, with a preface detailing the principal circumstances of his life. From the materials of this work Calderwood wrote his History of the Church of Scotland from the Beginning of the Reformation unto the End of the Reign of James VI., begin. ning 1560 and ending 1625,' folio. He is supposed to have died

in 1651.

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CALEPI'NO, AMBRO'GIO, was born at Calepio in the province of Bergamo in 1435. He became an Augustine friar, but devoted himself chiefly to philology. His great work was a Latin dictionary, which was one of the earliest works of the kind, and was first published at Reggio, fol., 1502. It went through many editions, most of them with numerous additions, which made it almost a new work. Passerat's (‘Bib-edition, 1609, with the title 'Dictionarium Octolingue,' contains the corresponding words in Greek, Hebrew, Italian, German, Spanish, French, and English. Other editions added the Slavonian and Hungarian. Facciolati, assisted by Forcellini, published a new edition of Calepino's, or rather Passerat's dictionary, also in eight languages, 2 vols. fol., Padua, 1731. While engaged on this labour Forcellini conceived the idea of a totally new and more complete and critical lexicon, and after spending thirty years in compiling it, he published it under the title of Totius Latinitatis Lexicon,' 4 vols. fol, Padua, 1771. Forcellini's lexicon superseded all former Latin dictionaries. Calepino died November the 30th 1511.

To revert to the parallel between the two great Spanish dramatists. Lope was bolder and ruder, Calderon more brilliant and refined, a keener observer of the female mind and manners, a readier contriver of plots, which are full of business and bustle, naturally arising from intricacies which are most happily disentangled in his denouements. In this respect he surpasses even Moreto and Solis, but he does not always keep within the rules of strict morality. He allows vice too frequently to triumph, out of deference, probably, as some would have it by way of apology for him, to the fashionable morals of the time. The chivalrous delicacy as to the point of honour, which often supplies the place of morality, is displayed in its most favourable aspect in some of his dramas. Sometimes he appears to be seized with a moralising fit, which contrasts strangely with the levity, merriment, intrigues, and mad gallantry which were exhibited for the first time on the Spanish stage in his 'Comedias de Capa y Espáda' (Plays of Cloak and Sword). These pieces take their name from the dress in which they were performed (then the general costume of the gentry throughout Europe), and in contradistinction to the Comedias heroicas' (Historical Dramas), which were intended to excite surprise and admiration. In the latter, love is the feeling which actuated the champions of chivalry, while in the former it is merely a verbose and glozing gallantry which succeeded to the poetical worship of the fair. These being a sort of dramatised novels, on subjects selected from fashionable life, gave full scope to Calderon's elegance of language, gracefulness of dialogue, facility of versification, richness of diction, and fertility of imagination; qualities indeed which sometimes make him too diffuse.

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Caideron gave the last polish to the Spanish theatre without changing its nature. He imparted dignity to the historical, or, as they were styled 'heroic' comedies; but while some of them are the best, others are the most trivial of his productions, and are full of historical blun iers.

The greater part of Calderon's works were published at Madrid in 9 vols. 4to, 1689: the first three volumes contain his comedies, and

CALHOUN, JOHN CALDWELL, one of the most influential of the recent statesmen of America, was born on the 18th of March 1782, at Abbeville in South Carolina. His father, Patrick Calhoun, was by birth an Irishman, but he emigrated to America early in life, settled in Carolina, and took an active part on the American side during the war of independence. John C. Calhoun graduated with distinction at Yale College in 1804; and, having completed his legal studies in Connecticut, returned to his native place in 1807 to enter upon the practice of his profession. He was elected the following year a member of the South Carolina House of Representatives, where his clear vigorous intellect soon obtained for him considerable notice. In 1811 he was sent as a representative to the United States Congress, and the rest of his life was spent at Washington. During the discussion of the important measures which in the course of the next five years excited the public mind, Mr. Calhoun played a prominent part, and his fervid eloquence, eagerly defending and stimulating the popular war-cry, won for him a commanding position. On Mr. Monroe's election to the presidency of the United States in 1817, he appointed Mr. Calhoun his secretary of war, a post he retained during the eight years of Mr. Monroe's tenure of office. His administration was marked by energy and judgment, and secured his position as one of the ablest public men of his time. On the next election, 1825, he was named as a candidate for the presidency, but withdrew his claim, and eventually he was chosen vice-president. To this high office he was re-elected in 1829, when General Jackson succeeded Mr. Adams as

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president; but he differed greatly from Jackson in policy, especially on the Tariff and Bank Charter questions; and in 1831 he resigned the vice-presidency, and was elected by South Carolina to the Senate of the United States. From the end of his term of six years he remained in retirement, until President Tyler in 1843 appointed him secretary of state, an office he held till the election of President Polk in 1845. In that year he again became the representative of South Carolina in the senate. He had now come to be regarded as the great leader and representative of the southern states in Congress, and no man was listened to with greater attention by all parties. An intense and fervid republican, he was yet eminently conservative in spirit, a staunch defender of all southern rights, and the inflexible supporter Of the 'institution' of slavery. In general and international politics, he commonly took the popular, or, as it is usually termed, the patriotic side. He died March 31, 1850. Many of Mr. Calhoun's speeches were printed as separate publications about the time of their delivery; and his collected Works,' edited by R. K. Crallé, were published in six vols. 8vo, Charleston and New York, 1851-55.

CALIA'RI, PAOLO. [CAGLIARI, PAOLO.] CALIDASA is the name of one of the most admired Indian poets. Hardly anything is known concerning the circumstances of his life. A tradition, very generally believed in India, makes him one of the nine gems or distinguished poets who lived at the court of King Vicramâditya. If by this name the same sovereign is to be understood from whose reign (B.c. 56) the years of the Samvat era are counted, Câlidâsa must have flourished about the middle of the century preceding the commencement of our era. Another king of the name Vicramâditya ascended the throne in A.D. 191, and a third in A.D. 441; and several considerations, especially the highly-polished style in which the works attributed to Câlidâsa are written, favour the assumption that the poet lived under Vicramâditya II. At all events our author must be distinguished from a poet of the same name who lived in the 12th century at the court of Raja Bhôja, the sovereign of Dhârâ. The Nalôdaya, a Sanscrit poem on the subject of the story of Nala and Damayanti, from the Mahabharata, written in an exceedingly forced and artificial style, full of rhymes and plays upon the sound of words, to which the name of Câlidâsa is affixed, should probably be attributed to the Câlidâsa of Raja Bhôja's court. But however imperfect our information about Câlidâsa may be, we possess in his works abundant evidence of the power of his genius. We do not hesitate to pronounce him the most universal, the least constrained by national peculiarities, not merely of all Indian, but of all Asiatic poets with whose works we are acquainted; and to this elevated tone of his mind, which while seeming to breathe the purely human air of Greece, yet retains all the quickness and glow of feeling, all the vividness of description and imagery of the Hindoo, must, in our opinion, be mainly attributed the undivided admiration with which the translation of his drama, 'Sacuntala,' by Sir William Jones (the first work that made known the name of Câlidâsa to Europeans), has been everywhere received. This translation appeared for the first time at Calcutta in 1789, but was soon reprinted in England, and was from the English, at an early period, retranslated into several other languages of Europe. We may particularly notice the German translation by George Forster, who appended to it a glossary explanatory of the allusions to Indian mythology, natural history, &c. The popularity which the play has acquired on the continent is attested by the fact that several attempts have been made to adapt it to the stage. In 1830 the Sanscrit text of 'Sacuntala' was published at Paris from a manuscript belonging to the 'Bibliothèque de Roi' by the late Professor A. L. Chézy, with an original French translation; and upon this edition is founded a new translation into German by M. Hirzel, Zürich, 1833, 8vo, in which the various metres of the text are imitated. Both Sir William Jones's translation and Chézy's edition however exhibit the work of Câlidâsa according to the interpolated shape in which it is now current in Bengal. This discovery was made by Mr. Hermann Brockhaus, of Leipzig, who, in 1835, examined and collated the numerous manuscripts of the drama in the library of the East India Company, and in the private collection of Professor H. H. Wilson at Oxford. The most recent editions are one of the text published at Calcutta in 1840; one of the text with a German translation by Bochtlingk, Bonn, 1846; another German translation by E. Meier, Stutgart, 1852; and a free English translation, in prose and verse, by Professor Monier Williams, remarkable for the accuracy of the version and for the beauty of its typography: Hertford, 1855.

We must confine ourselves to a mere enumeration of the other principal works of Câlidâsa. Besides 'Sacuntala' we possess two other dramatic poems attributed to him-'Vicramôrvasi,' founded upon an ancient Indian legend of the loves of King Jurûravas and Urvasi, a celestial nymph (translated by H. H. Wilson in his 'Hindu Theatre;' the text printed at Calcutta in 1830, and critically re-edited with a Latin translation by Lenz, Berlin, 1833, 4to; and again with a German translation by Bollensen, St. Petersburg, 1846); and Dhûrtasamagama,' a burlesque piece, as yet inedited. The 'Mêgha Dûta,' or 'CloudMessenger,' a lyrical poem of only 116 stanzas, contains the complaints of a demigod banished to earth, who entreats a passing cloud to convey an affectionate message to his wife. It was edited with a translation into English verse and with notes by H. H. Wilson, Calcutta, 1813, 4to; by Geldemeister, Bonn, 1841: and German translations have been

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published by Herzel, Zurich, 1846; and by Max Müller, the present professor of modern languages at Oxford, Königsberg, 1847. The Raghu Vansa' is a narrative poem in celebration of the family of Raghu, in which Râma, the hero of the Râmâyana, and as the incarnation of Vishnu an object of great veneration with the Hindoos, was born: it has been edited with a Latin translation by Stenzler, London, 1832, 4to, and with a Sanscrit prose paraphrase by the pundits of Fort William at Calcutta, 1832, 8vo. The Cumâra Sambhava' is another epic poem designed to celebrate the birth of Cumâra, the son of Pârvati; but it closes with Pârvati's wedding. An edition and translation of this work by Stenzler was published under the auspices of the London Oriental Translation Fund at Berlin in 1838. Part of the first canto is given in Sanscrit and English, and with interesting annotations, by (we believe) the Rev. Dr. Mill of Calcutta, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for July, 1833, pp. 329-358 A short didactic poem on prosody, exhibiting the most common sorts of metre, and called 'Srutabôdha,' is likewise attributed to Câlidâsa as well as two or three other short pieces.

CALIGULA, CAIUS CAESAR, the fourth of the Roman emperors, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, was born A.D. 12 in a Roman camp, in what place is not agreed, though Suetonius would seem to show that he was born at Antium. He was brought up among the soldiers, and is best known by a nickname said to have been given him by those associates. The word 'caligula' is derived from caliga,' a kind of shoe which was worn by the common soldiers, and which he frequently wore himself in order to gain their affections. (Tacit., 'Ann.,' i. 41, 69.) The training and education which would have been suited to his rank appear to have been neglected. Caligula early devoted himself to observing the feelings and courting the favour of Tiberius, and by artful and unremitting attentions he so far succeeded in ingratiating himself with the emperor that he was soon promoted to responsible offices of state. The uncertainty of succession which followed the death of Tiberius, who was put to death probably by one of Caligula's favourites (Tacit., Ann.,' vi. 50), together with the general popularity which Caligula himself enjoyed, afforded him a favourable opportunity of succeeding to the sovereign power (A.D. 37). His government began well, and with symptoms of great clemency; he set at liberty all the state-prisoners, discouraged informers, and promised the senate that he would act with the utmost moderation: he augmented the powers of the magistrates, and at least apparently curtailed his own. Soon afterwards he assumed the consulship, and chose for his colleague his uncle Claudius. During his consulship Caligula gave many instances of mildness and generosity; among other things he restored the kingdom of Commagene, which Tiberius had reduced to a Roman province, to Antiochus, son of the former king. After about eight months he fell ill, and the utmost anxiety was shown in inquiring for his health. His recovery was hailed with joy. His conduct however was soon changed. Caligula became addicted to intemperance, volup tuousness, and cruelty, and his extravagance knew no bounds. He took upon himself the highest titles of honour, and even had temples erected and sacrifices offered to him as a god. It seems probable that his grandmother Antonia died by his orders. According to Dion Cassius, he frequently visited the prisons in person, and ordered all the captives, untried, guilty, or not, to be thrown to wild beast. Sometimes he would order a number of the spectators to be seized and thrown among them, after having had their tongues cut out, that their cries might not interrupt his ferocious delight. Old age and weakness rather attracted than averted his cruelty. He even put to death Macro, who had been the means of his elevation, and his wife with him. His lust was as excessive as his cruelty. A favourite horse, Incitatus, he fed with gilt oats and delicious wiues; he appointed him a great number of attendants, and treated him with the most absurd attentions. He erected a bridge over the sea from Baixe to Puteoli, on which he rode along, enjoying the sight of numbers of persons drowning under his order. He made great preparations for a war against the Germans, and crossed the Rhine with a large army, but returned without having seen a single enemy. He invaded and plundered Gaul, banished his sisters Agrippina and Livia, pretended that he was going to invade Britain, but returned after he had got a few miles out to sea, and then on his arriving in Rome contented himself with an ovation. It is said that Caligula had a design to destroy the works of Homer, Virgil, and Livy.

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