After a reign of three years, ten months, and eight days, and in the twenty-ninth year of his age, Caligula was murdered by a band of conspirators, headed by Cassius Chærea, a tribune, A.D. 41. (Sueton. in vit., c. 69.) The character of this emperor is pretty accurately given by Seneca (De Irâ'), when he says that nature seems to have intended to show in the instance of Caligula how much harm can be done by the greatest vices leagued with the greatest power. Perhaps the true explanation of his proceedings is that he was insane. Caligula had several wives, but he left no children behind him. The medal which is here given contains on the reverse the names of his three sistersAgrippina (afterwards the wife of her uncle the Emperor Claudius), Drusilla, and Julia, who is called Livia or Livilla by Suetonius. (Dion Cassius, pp. 694, 717-763, H. Stephens, 1592.)

CALIPPUS, author of the CALIPPIC PERIOD. Calippus, of Cyzicus, lived about B.C. 330. He is said to have been a disciple of Plato. He observed at the Hellespont, and is said to have detected the error of the Metonic cycle by means of a lunar eclipse which happened six years before the death of Alexander. Very little more is known of him, and that little not worth stating.

The meaning of the 'Calippic period' may be briefly stated as follows. Suppose a perfectly central eclipse of the moon to a spectator at the earth's centre, that is, suppose the centres of the sun and moon, and the junction of the moon's orbit with the ecliptic, or the node, to be all at the same point of the visible heavens. The revolutions of these three points, the sun's centre, the moon's centre, and the moon's node, would then begin, and a whole cycle of eclipses would take place, in a manuer depending upon the relative motions of the three, until such time as the same phenomenon, namely, the central lunar eclipse, again happened at the same node. After this, the cycle of eclipses would recommence in the same order, because all the circumstances of motion on which eclipses depend are recommencing. Thus if the second-hand of a watch were mounted on the same pivot as the minute and hour hand, they would all be together at 12 o'clock, and all the possible phases (appearances) which their relative positions could present would be completed in twelve hours, and then begin again. Next it is evident that though such a coincidence of sun, moon, and moon's node never take place, the period elapsed between two epochs at which the three are very near to each other will present a succession of eclipses which will nearly be repeated, that is, with nearly the same circumstances, in the next such period.

The cycle of Meton was composed of 235 lunations, or periods from new moon to new moon, containing a very little more than 255 revolutions from a node to the same node again, about 254 complete sidereal revolutions of the moon, and 6940 days, or a few hours more than 19 years. This may be called a first approximation, and it is still sufficiently exact for finding Easter.

Calippus observed that a more correct period might be formed by taking four times the period of Meton, all but one day, or 27,759 days, or very nearly 76 years. This period contains 940 complete lunations, 1020 nodal revolutions, and 1016 complete sidereal revolutions; all very nearly. The Calippic cycle is therefore four Metonic cycles, all but one day. The analogy with the common and leap year will fix this in the memory. Calippus began to reckon his cycles from the new moon next following the summer solstice of the year B.C. 330, being the commencement of the third year of the 112th Olympiad, A.U.C. 423, Julian period 4384, era of Nabonassar 418.

CALIXTUS, or KALLISTUS I., one of the early bishops of Rome, succeeded Zephyrinus A.D. 219, and died in 222. Little is known about him; some say he suffered martyrdom, but this is doubted by others. One of the Roman catacombs, or subterraneous cemeteries, was named after him.

CALIXTUS II., son of William, Count of Burgundy, succeeded in the see of Rome Gelasius II. in 1119, and died in 1124. CALIXTUS III., ALONZO BORJA, a Spaniard and bishop of Valencia, was made pope after the death of Nicholas V. in 1455. He endeavoured to form a general league of the Christian princes against the Turks, in order to save Constantinople. He died in 1458, and was succeeded by Pius II. Calixtus was maternal uncle to Roderic Lenzoli Borja, whom he made cardinal, and who became afterwards Pope Alexander VI.

There was another Calixtus, an antipope, who assumed the title of Calixtus III. in the schism against Pope Alexander III. in the 12th century, but afterwards submitted and resigned his claim.

CALKOEN VAN BEEK, JAN FREDERIK, was born May 5th, 1772, at Groningen, in Holland. He studied at Amsterdam, and afterwards at Utrecht, where he remained seven years, at first applying himself to theology, but subsequently to mathematics and astronomy. He afterwards spent some time at the universities of Göttingen, Leip. zig, and Jena, and also visited the observatories of Gotha and Berlin. In 1799 he was appointed professor extraordinary of astronomy and mathematics in the university of Leyden, and in 1804 he became the ordinary professor. In the following year he accepted the same professorship in the university of Utrecht. As one of the commission for examining into the weights and measures of Holland, his services were considered of such importance as to receive the public thanks of Louis Bonaparte, the king; and when the National Institute of Holland was established, he became one of the first members. He died March 25, 1811. He published a treatise in Latin on the machines

and other contrivances of the ancients for the measurement of time, and an 'Onderzoek naar den Oorsprong van den Mozaishen en Christelijken Godsdienst' (Inquiry into the Origin of the Mosaic and Christian Religion'), which work was written as a refutation of the treatise of Dupuis entitled Origine de tous les Cultes.' CALLCOTT, SIR AUGUSTUS WALL, R.A., was born at Kensington in 1779, and died in the same place in the close of the year 1844, aged sixty-five. He was the brother of the distinguished composer, Dr. Callcott, and he himself in early life officiated for several years in the choir of Westminster Abbey under Dr. Cooke. He however preferred painting to music, and for some time pursued both studies together, until the success of a portrait which he painted under the tuition of Hoppner, in 1799, and which he exhibite, led him to the final choice of painting as his profession. Very little experience however showed him that portrait was not suited to his taste, and in 1803 he devoted himself exclusively to the practice of landscapepainting. Callcott was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1806, and a member in 1810. For his diploma-picture, he presented a beautiful painting called 'Morning.' In 1837 he was knighted by the Queen; and at the death of Mr. Seguier in 1844, he was appointed his successor as Conservator of the Royal pictures; he however held this office for a very short time. He died November 25, 1844, and was buried on the 30th of November in Kensal Green Cemetery, where his wife, Lady Callcott, had been buried two years previously. For many years Callcott was a steady and large contributor to the exhibitions of the Royal Academy. His landscapes were generally of small dimensions, and all very similar in style; but most of them are extensive as views, extremely quiet in character, and strictly belong to the beautiful as a class. He was less extensive in his distances than Claude, but more defined; in his fore-grounds he was more correct and natural than Claude, except in the foliage, especially of large trees; in colour he was perfectly true and natural. By his admirers he was sometimes designated the English Claude. Like those of his prototype, his works are perhaps more frequently original characteristic pictures of certain scenery, as Italy,' 'Morning,' Evening,' &c., than mere views of particular localities. Many of his pictures have their titles from the occupation of a few figures introduced into them, as 'Returning from Market,' 'Waiting for the Passage-Boat,' 'The Ferry,' &c. He painted also some marine pieces. In 1833 he had in the exhibition a beautiful picture called Harvest in the Highlands,' in which the figures were painted by E. Landseer, R.A.: this picture has been admirably engraved by Wilmore for presentation to the subscribers to the Art-Union for 1856. In 1837 Calicott departed from his usual style and exhibited a picture of Raffaelle and the Fornarina,' which attracted considerable notice, and was selected by the directors of the London Art-Union to be engraved by L. Stocks for circulation among the subscribers for the year 1843. The success of this piece seems to have induced the painter to attempt a work on a much larger scale in the same style. He exhibited in 1840 a picture of Milton dictating to his Daughters,' in which the figures were about the size of life; the attempt was however a failure; the composition was extremely meagre and commonplace, and the figures, especially one of the daughters, were ill-drawn. However, as landscape-painter, Callcott has earned a reputation which will ensure his name an honourable place among the best recent painters in that department of the ar

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LADY CALLCOTT was the widow of Captain Graham, R.N., and was married to Sir Augustus in 1827. She was born in 1788: her maiden name was Mary Dundas. She was the daughter of Captain Dundas, and was married early in life to Captain Graham, with whom she went to India in 1809. She remained in India two years, and visited during that period many of the most remarkable places in that country, and published an account of her travels after her return home. She published at a later period two works relating to Italy, where she dwelt for some time, Three Months in the Environs of Rome,' and 'Memoirs of Poussin.' In 1821 she embarked with her husbaud for South America, but Captain Graham died during the voyage, and was buried at Valparaiso.

After her second marriage she paid another visit to Italy, in the company of Sir Augustus, and turned her attention particularly to art. In 1836 she published her last literary work, under the title'Essays towards the History of Painting,' which, notwithstanding an unfortunate corruption of names, partly due to the old translation of Pliny by Philemon Holland, and a few other inaccuracies, is a very creditable popular performance. She died Nov. 20, 1842.

(Art-Union Journal, 1843-45; Catalogues of the Exhibitions of the Royal Academy; Waagen, Kunstwerke und Künstler in England.) CALLCOTT, JOHN WALL, one of the brightest ornaments of the British school of music, was born in 1766, at Kensington, where his father carried on the business of a builder. At the age of seven he was entered as day-boarder in a neighbouring school, where he made such progress that he commenced reading the Greek Testament in his twelfth year, when family affairs occasioned his removal, from which period, great and various as were his acquirements, he was selfeducated, a circumstance to which, probably, the vigour of his unshackled mind may be attributed. Music, at first his amusement, accidentally became his profession, instead of surgery, for which he

was preparing to qualify himself, when the sight of a severe operation so powerfully acted on nerves of remarkable sensibility, that he at once abandoned all hope of succeeding in the healing art, and devoted himself to that of harmony, the study of which he prosecuted without any master; though by a constant attendance at the Chapel Royal, at Westminster Abbey, and many concerts, together with the friendly hints, given, in frequent conversations, by Doctors Cooke and Arnold, he, no doubt, profited very largely.

He commenced his professional career in the subordinate capacity of deputy-organist of St. George the Martyr, Queen Square; and at about the same time made his first attempt in the composition of that truly national music, the Glee. In 1785, when only nineteen years of age, he appeared as a candidate for the prizes annually given by the Catch Club, and obtained three out of the four gold medals. Among the successful pieces was that masterly composition, 'Oh! sovereign of the willing soul.' Thus encouraged, he followed up with ardour and industry the course so auspiciously begun, and in the following ten years, twenty medals of the same distinguished society were awarded to him.

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In 1785 Mr. Callcott was admitted bachelor-in-music by the University of Oxford. In 1787 he assisted in forming the Glee-Club. In 1790 he took advantage of the arrival of Haydn in this country, and derived considerable knowledge in the higher branch of instrumental composition from that illustrious musician. He advanced to the degree of doctor-in-music at Oxford, in 1790; his exercise was a Latin motet, selected from Isaiah, beginning Propter Sion non tacebo.' His Musical Grammar' appeared in 1805. About the year 1806, he undertook to deliver lectures on music at the Royal Institution, a task "most of all others suited to his studies and gratifying to his ambition: but the very anxiety he felt to execute the duty in a manner worthy of himself, rendered his hopes futile, and his efforts unavailing. His mind, long overstrained, now sank at once under the burdens he had so unsparingly laid on it, and he became incompetent to the fulfilment of any of his engagements." After a seclusion of five years, he rallied for a time, and by avoiding all severe study or exciting occupation, afforded hopes to his friends that his mental powers were permanently restored. This gleam however lasted but three years, when he was once more assailed by the most woful of human maladies, and never recovered. He died in May 1821.

The productions of this original and ingenious composer are too numerous, and indeed too well known, to be particularised here: the choicest of them were, in 1824, collected and published in two handsome volumes, by his son-in-law, Mr. Horsley. Dr. Callcott left a widow, eight daughters, and two sons. One of the latter has attained considerable distinction in his father's art.

(Horsley, Memoir of Dr. Callcott; and Harmonicon, ix. 53.) CALLENBERG, JOHANN-HEINRICH, was born January 12, 1694, in the principality of Saxe-Gotha. He studied at the university of Halle, and was appointed professor of philosophy in 1727, and professor of theology in 1739. At the period when he became professor of philosophy there was a very strong feeling among the members of the Protestant churches in favour of missions to the East, for the conversion of the Mohammedans and other inhabitants of those countries to Christianity. Callenberg, himself a Protestant with very decided religious sentiments, entered into these views with great enthusiasm; and being a man of property, established, at his own expense and on his own premises, a printing-office for the publication of works in Arabic and Hebrew, for the furtherance of the missionary cause. Here were printed translations into Arabic of portions of the Old Testament, the whole of the New Testament, Luther's Shorter Catechism, the Imitation of Jesus Christ' (somewhat curtailed), portions of Grotius on the Truth of the Christian Religion,' the Rudiments of the Arabic Language, and other works necessary for those who as missionaries in the East had to communicate with many nations speaking that language. He was also anxious for the conversion of the Jews to Christianity, and with that view wrote a 'Kurze Anleitung zur Jüdisch-Teutchen Sprache' (Short Introduction to the Speech of the German-Jews), 8vo, 1733, to which he added in 1736 a short dictionary of the corrupt Hebrew spoken among themselves by the Jews of Germany, the former work being an elementary grammar of the same speech. He continued his labours in writing, translating, and printing a variety of works useful for the missionaries till his death, which occurred July 16, 1760. We have merely indicated a few of the works which issued from his press. A full notice of them would occupy much space. They were all directed to the promotion of the missionary cause, to which, with indefatigable zeal, he devoted the labours of his life. Callenberg wrote in German two works, in one of which he gives a detailed account of the means which had been used to convert the Jews to Christianity, and in the other of the labours of the missionaries among the Mohammedans.

CALLET, JEAN-FRANÇOIS, born at Versailles, October 25, 1744. His mother was stated by a family tradition to have been of the family of Des Cartes. He came to Paris in 1768; in 1783 he published his edition of Gardiner's logarithms in octavo. In 1788 he was made professor of hydrography at Vannes, and afterwards at Dunkirk. He returned to Paris in 1792, and was Professeur des ingénieursgéographes au Dépôt de la Guerre for four years. After the suppression of this place, he became a private teacher of mathematics.

In 1795 he published his stereotyped logarithms, with tables of logarithmic sines for the new decimal division of the circle, the first which had then appeared. He died November 14, 1798. (Lalande, Bibliog. Astron., p. 805.)

The last logarithms of Callet ('Tables portatives de Logarithmes,' Paris, Firmin Didot, 1795) are still in general use, and are very convenient in many respects. The logarithms of numbers are arranged so that when the third figure changes, the line in which the remaining four figures are placed falls, so that the latter are opposite to their correct preceding figures. The logarithmic sines, &c., are to every ten seconds, sexagesimal as usual, the first five degrees being to every second. CALLICRA'TIDAS, a Spartan officer who was appointed to succeed Lysander in the command of the Peloponnesian fleet in the Ægean Sea, B.C. 406, at the beginning of the twenty-fourth year of the Peloponnesian war. Of simple, straight-forward character, he was no match for Lysander and his friends in the arts of intrigue; and they used their best endeavours to perplex his plans and frustrate all his operations. So far as the caballing of his officers was concerned, he got over the difficulty by putting the simple question-whether they preferred that he should retain the command, or that he should sail home, and relate at Sparta the condition in which he found things? for none durst stand the chance of accusation at home. But for the pay of his fleet he was dependent upon Cyrus, the Persian commanderin-chief of the king's forces in western Asia Minor; and when he went to that prince at Sardis to obtain a supply of money, he was so disgusted by Asiatic pride, and ceremony, and dilatoriness, that, leaving the object of his journey unaccomplished, he returned to Miletus, saying that the Greeks were indeed miserable thus to cringe to barbarians for their money, and that if he lived to return home he would do his best to reconcile the Athenians and the Lacedemonians. Having obtained a sum upon loan, he sailed to Lesbos, and took Methymne by assault. The town was given up to pillage. Callicratidas was urged to sell the citizens for slaves, according to the usual practice of Greek warfare; but he replied, that while he had the command no Grecian citizen should be made a slave. This liberal sentiment however did not influence him in regard to the Athenians; for Xenophon (if there is no error in the text) says in the next line that the Athenians who formed the garrison were sold. (See the note of F. A. Wolff on this passage.)

After this success Callicratidas met Conon, the Athenian commander, at sea, attacked him, gained a victory, and blockaded him in the harbour of Mitylene. Intelligence of this arriving at Athens, a powerful fleet of 110 ships was equipped and manned within the space of thirty days, and sent to the relief of Conon. Callicratidas left 50 ships to maintain the blockade, and with only 120 advanced to meet the enemy, whose number was increased by reinforcements from the allied states to 150 and upwards. The fleets met between Lesbos and the main land, near the small islands called Arginusæ. Hermon, the master of Callicratidas's ship, recommended the Spartan commander to retreat without hazarding a battle. He replied, that if he were dead Sparta would be no worse off; but that it was base to fly. The battle was long and doubtful, but ended in the complete defeat of the Lacedæmonians, with the loss of 70 ships. Callicratidas perished in it, being thrown overboard by the shock of his own ship against one of the enemy. (Xenophon, Hellenics,' lib. i. c. 6.)

CALLI'MACHUS, a celebrated Greek sculptor of uncertain age, but probably of about the time of Phidias. He was apparently an Athenian, though some claim him for Corinth, because he is recorded by Vitruvius as the inventor of the Corinthian capital. Callimachus is, on the other hand, supposed to have been of Athens, from a report noticed by Vitruvius, and in part by Pliny, and Pausanias, that the Athenians used to call him Catatechnos, Karáтexvos, because of the elegancy and refinement of his style, or rather Catatexitechnos, KaTaTnEiTexvos, according to the emendation of Sillig, (following the reading of one or two inanuscripts) signifying one who weakens or effeminates an art, in allusion to the excessive finish by which he greatly injured the effect and value of his works. Pliny calls him the calumniator of himself, and says that he never knew when to leave off finishing his works; the same fault was found with Protogenes. If Callimachus invented the Corinthian capital, this circumstance enables us, as Winckelmann has observed, in some degree to fix his time. It must have been before the 95th Olympiad, about 400 B.C., for Scopas then erected a temple of Minerva, according to Pausanias, with columns of the Corinthian order at Tegea; but it was probably not much earlier than that date, as his style was so elaborate and finished. There is a bas-relief in the capitol at Rome, with Kaλuaxos ETTOLEL engraved upon it, which represents a dance of three bacchantes and a fawn; and some have, with little probability, supposed this to be the same work which Pliny notices as a dance of Spartan virgins by Callimachus.

CALLI'MACHUS, a Greek poet, was at the height of his reputation a little after the time of the first Punic war, 264 B.O. (Aul. Gell., xvii. 21, 41.) We learn from Suidas the following particulars respecting him. He was the son of Battus and Mesatma, was born at Cyrene, and studied under Hermocrates of Iasus. His wife was the daughter of one Euphrates, a Syracusan; he had a sister called Megatima, who married one Stasenor; the offspring of this marriage

was a son, who bore the same name as his uncle, and wrote an epic poem on islands. Callimachus, before he was taken into favour by Ptolemy Philadelphus, by whom he was highly honoured (Strabo, p. 838), kept a school in a quarter of Alexandria called Eleusis, and had among his pupils Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, the celebrated grammarian, and Apollonius of Rhodes, the author of the 'Argonautics.' He was alive when Ptolemy Euergetes ascended the throne in B.C. 247.

It appears from an epigram attributed to Callimachus (Jacob's 'Anthol. Palat.,' vol. i. p. 466) that his grandfather's name was also Callimachus; and the assertion of Suidas, that he was the son of Battus, is perhaps merely an inference from his epithet Battiades, which may be explained from the fact that he believed himself descended from the founder of Cyrene (Strabo, p. 837). Of his numerous writings only some hymns and epigrams remain. Of his lost works, which are most quoted, we may mention his 'Hecale,' a long poem (on which we refer our readers to the learned papers by Nake in the Rheinisches Museum,' ii. 4, and iii. 4); his historical Memorials, which are also attributed to Zenodotus ('Athen.' iii. p. 95); a Treatise on Birds,' also quoted by Athenæus; and a List of all kinds of Writings' (Tivat Tavrodanŵv σvypaμμáτwv), which consisted of 120 books; so that he doubtless merited the epithet 'well-informed' (ToAvíσTop), given him by Strabo (p. 438). He wrote an invective under the name of Ibis' against his scholar Apollonius, who had offended him, and the title was subsequently adopted by Ovid for a satirical poem of the same kind. As we might expect from the age and employments of Callimachus, his remaining poems display much more of grammatical art than of poetical imagination, although they are not without that kind of beauty which is the result of much labour and learning. The first edition of the Hymns of Callimachus was by John Lascaris, Florence, 4to., probably printed about A.D. 1500: this edition is printed in capital letters. The latest editions are that by Blomfield, 8vo, Lond. 1815; and a small edition by Volger, Leipzig, 1817, 8vo.

CALLI'STHENES. [ALEXANDER III.]

CALLI'STRATUS, a Roman jurist, who was writing under the joint reign of Severus and Antoninas (1. tit. 19, s. 3; 49. tit. 14, s. 3), by whom are meant Septimius Severus and his son Antoninus Caracalla. Severus died A.D. 211. Lampridius ('Alexander Severus,' 68), mentions a Callistratus as one of the Council of the Emperor Alexander Severus; and this may be the Callistratus under notice. Callistratus is one of the Jurists from whose writings Justinian's 'Digest' was compiled: the works of Callistratus from which the excerpts in the 'Digest' are taken, were-six books 'De Cognitionibus; six books of the 'Edictum Monitorium;' four books on the 'Jus Fisci;' three books of 'Institutiones;' two books of 'Quæstiones.' It appears from 'Institutiones' being mentioned as one of the works of Callistratus, that he was one of those Roman jurists who wrote institutional treatises, such as Gaius.

CALLOT, JACQUES, an eminent engraver, was born at Nanci, in 1592, of a family recently ennobled. His father discountenancing his choice of a profession, he fled from home in order to make his way to Rome, the capital of the fine arts. Falling in with a troop of gipsies, he travelled in their company as far as Florence, where a gentleman, pleased with his ingenuous ardour, placed him with an artist to study; but he soon left him for Rome. At Rome he met some acquaintances of his family, who compelled him to return home. He ran away a second time, and was a second time brought back, by bis elder brother, whom he met at Turin. During his youthful adventures, as the story goes, his morals were preserved uncorrupted, by his constant prayer that he might grow up a good man, excel in his profession, and live to the age of forty-three. He set out a third time, with his father's tardy concurrence, and studied for a long time at Rome. On his way homewards he was detained for many years by Cosmo II. After the death of his patron he returned to Nanci, married, and fixed his residence among his friends. He acquired considerable wealth, and his fame was such that he was invited to witness and perpetuate the events of the siege of Breda, and afterwards the sieges of Rochelle and Rhé; but he declined to commemorate the subsequent capture of his native place, and likewise refused a pension and lodging at Paris, offered to him by Louis XIII. He died March 28, 1635, of complaints incidental to the practice of his art.

Callot possessed a lively and fertile invention, and he had a singular power of enriching a small space with a multitude of figures and actions. He engraved both with the burin and the needle; but by far his best works are free etchings, touched with the burin, delicately executed and sometimes wonderfully minute. There is a want of uuity and breadth of effect in some of his larger engravings; indeed, he never seems to have acquired mastery over the graver, and engraved even fewer pictures than most of his profession, working chiefly from original designs. His principal works are the Sieges, above-mentioned, the 'Miseries of War,' certain Festivities at Florence,' and a set of Capricci. He painted a few pictures, but they are extremely rare; they are of small size on copper, and painted with almost excessive neatness. Vandyck painted his portrait, which has been engraved by Boulonais and Vostermann. (Felibien; Perrault; De Haldat, &c.)

CALMET, AUGUSTINE, was born at Mesnil-la-Horgne, near

Commercy, in the modern department of the Meuse, on February 6th, 1672. He received the first rudiments of his education at the priory of Breuil; studied rhetoric at Pont-à-Musson; and afterwards entered the Benedictine abbey of Mansuy, in the Fauxbourg of Toul, where he took the vows in 1689. Greek, Hebrew, philosophy, and divinity engrossed his time until 1704, when he was appointed sub-prior at the abbey of Munster, in which he appears to have diligently pursued his biblical studies. In 1707 he published in French the first volume of his commentaries upon the Bible. In 1715 he purchased the priory of St. Lay from the Abbé Morel, the king's almoner, for a pension of 3000 livres, and three years afterwards he was appointed abbé of St. Leopold of Nanci. His priory of St. Lay was surrendered by him when, in 1723, he was chosen abbé of Sénones, and he then also declined the title of bishop 'in partibus infidelium,' which was offered to him by Pope Benedict XIII., at the suggestion of the college of cardinals. He died in his abbey on the 25th of October 1757, greatly esteemed both for learning and for moderation. The following is a list of his principal works:-'Commentaire Littéral sur tous les livres de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament,' 1707-16, in 23 vols. 4to, Reprinted in Paris 1713, 26 vols. 4to, and 9 vols. fol.; and abridged in 14 vols. 4to. Rondet published a new edition of this abridgement. Avignon, 1767-73, 17 vols. 4to. The Dissertations and Prefaces belonging to his Commentary were published with 19 new Dissertations, Paris, 1720, 2 vols. 4to. 'Histoire de l'Ancien et du Nouveau Testament,' intended as an introduction to Fleury's 'Ecclesiastical History,' 2 and 4 vols. 4to, and 5 and 7 vols. 12mo. De la Poesie et Musique des Anciens Hebreux,' Amst. 1723, 8vo. 'Dictionnaire Historique, Critique, et Chronologique de la Bible, enrichi d'un grand nombre de figures en taille douce qui representent les antiquités Judaiques.' 'Dictionnaire de la Bible,' &c., 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1722. 'Supplement à ce Dictionnaire,' 2 vols. 4to, Paris, 1728. Reprinted in 4 vols. 4to, Paris, 1730. This very valuable work was translated into English, under the title Historical, Geographical, Critical, Chronological, and Etymological Dictionary of the Holy Bible.' To which is added 'Bibliotheca Sacra,' or a catalogue of the best editions of the Bible, and commentaries upon it translated by J. D. Oyley and J. Calson, with cuts, London, 1732, 3 vols. folio. Three or four more recent English versions founded upon this, but having various notes and additions, have been since published in London: perhaps the best is that published under the editorial care of Mr. I. Taylor. Histoire ecclesiastique et civile de la Lorraine depuis l'entrée de Jules Cesar dans les Gaules jusqu'à la mort de Charles V. Duc de Lorraine; avec les pieces justificatives à la fin,' Nancy, 1728, 4 vols. fol. Reprinted 1745 in 5 vols. fol. Bibliothèque des Ecrivains de Lorraine,' 1751, folio. 'Histoire Universelle Sacrée et Profane,' 15 vols. 4to. This undertaking Calmet did not live to finish, and, in other respects, it is not his best work. Dissertations sur les Apparitious des Anges, des Démons, et des Esprits, et sur les Revenans et Vampires de Hongrie,' Paris, 1746, 12mo; Einsiedlen, 1749, 12mo; Paris, 1751, 2 vols. 12mo. Translated and published in English in 1759, 8vo. 'Commentaire Littéral, Historique, et Moral, sur la Règle de St. Benoit,' 1754, 2 vols. 4to. Perhaps the most useful of Calmet's works, certainly the one most familiar to the English reader is the 'Dictionary of the Bible.' All his works indeed are replete with learning, but should be read with some degree of caution. Calmet was deeply imbued with fanciful and rabbinical theories. Though a man of great learning he had a strong leaning to the marvellous, and his tendency to superstition was not controlled by a sound judgment. Voltaire, in his usual lively manner, describes him as a man who does not think, but furnishes others with materials for thinking.

CALOGIERA, ANGELO, born at Padua in 1699, of a family originally from Corfu, studied at Venice, and entered at an early age the monastery of St. Michele, near Murano, which belonged to the order of the Camaldulenses. After having taken his vows, he was sent to Ravenna to teach theology, where he acquired a large store of varied literary knowledge, and formed many valuable acquaintances. Calogiera, after some years, returned to his monastery of St. Michele, where he spent the greater part of his remaining life in his favourite literary studies. He was induced to compile an annual selection from the numerous papers which were read in the various scientific and philological acadeinies scattered about Italy, and which, for want of a common journal, remained buried and forgotten in their respective archives. Calogiera undertook the task, in which he was assisted by Pier Caterino Zeno, Facciolati, Vallisnieri, Muratori, Manni, and other learned contemporaries. He began to publish in 1728, at Venice, the 'Raccolta d'Opuscoli Scientifici e Filologici,' which continued to appear periodically till 1753, when the series closed by its fifty-first volume, which contains an index of the whole collection. He resumed it however in 1754, under the title of Nuova Raccolta d'Opuscoli Scientifici e Filologici,' which he carried on to the time of his death, in 1768, after which it was continued by his co-religionist Father Mandelli till 1784, when the fortieth and last volume of this second series appeared. The two series constitute an ample store of Italian learning during the 18th century. Amidst many papers which have only a local and temporary interest, there are many others which are truly valuable, and which could not be found anywhere else. Calogiera wrote also a kind of literary journal entitled 'Memorie per servire alla Storia Letteraria;' he wrote with Apostolo Zeno in the journal ‘La

Minerva,' and he also contributed to a new edition of the 'Biblioteca volante' of Cinelli. Calogiera was appointed in 1730 Revisore or book Censor for the Venetian State. He left a voluminous correspondence, which is inedited. (Lombardi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana nel Secolo XVIII.) CALOMARDE, FRANCISCO TADEO, the leading minister of the Spanish cabinet for ten years under Ferdinand VII., was born at the town of Villel, in Lower Aragon, on the 10th of February 1775. His parents were so poor, that when he became a student of law at the university of Saragossa he was obliged to eke out his means of subsistence by officiating in off hours as a lady's page. A story is told in his life, by Cardenas, that one evening some merchants of Teruel, who learned that the page who was carrying the lantern to light them to his mistress's evening party was studying the law, asked him what he aimed at becoming; and that the youth replied, with much gravity, "Minister of grace and justice." This was considered so preposterous, that it was repeated amid roars of laughter at the party, and served as a standing jest against Calomarde, more especially as his abilities as a student were far from remarkable. But when he removed to Madrid to practise as a lawyer, the young Aragonese soon found a path to fortune by marrying the daughter of Beltran, another Aragonese, the physician to Godoy, then in the zenith of his power as the reigning favourite, and though in the course of a few months he parted with his wife for ever, he remained fixed in the office to which his father-in-law had introduced him. The French invasion drove him to Cadiz; and his rejection as a candidate for the first Cortes is said to have turned him from an adherent of the liberal into one of the absolutist party. Through the stormy years that followed he was sometimes in power in inferior offices, and sometimes in banishment and disgrace, till, on the fall of the constitutional government by the invasion of the Duke of Angoulême, and the restoration of absolute power under Ferdinand, Calomarde finally attained his object, and was named in 1823 to the post he had aspired to in boyhood, in succession to the Marquis of Casa Irujo, whose death proved a serious loss to Spain. It was while Calomarde was minister of grace and justice, that, on the 31st of July 1826, an unhappy schoolmaster named Antonio Ripoll was executed at Valencia for denying the Trinity and other leading doctrines of the church-the only auto-da-fè for the last thirty years in Spain. The disgrace of most of the measures of the period, from 1823 to 1833, which was a period of marked retrogression in every point of view, belongs to Ferdinand and Calomarde; but it is not easy to decide in what proportions, as it is asserted by some that the minister was merely an obsequious toolby others, that he often prompted the malignant passions of the king. His principal care appears to have been to keep himself in place, and to promote as many Aragonese as possible, a propensity which was the subject of Ferdinand's frequent sarcasm. His long term of power came to an end with an event which was not only a crisis in the life of Calomarde, but a most momentous crisis in the history of Spain. King Ferdinand had revived in favour of his daughter by Queen Christina, the present Queen Isabella, the law which allowed of the female inheritance of the crown-a law which had been abolished by treaty with foreign powers at the peace of Utrecht, but secretly agreed to be resumed by king and cortes towards the close of the 18th century. In September 1833, when the king considered himself on his death-bed, his mind was agitated by the thought of the probable consequences of this arrangement, which deprived his brother Don Carlos, the favourite of the absolutists, of the succession to the throne. He asked the advice of Calomarde, who told him that the royalist volunteers, the supporters of the absolute party, had arms in their hands, that they numbered 200,000 men, and that it was useless to expect they would consent to see the succession altered without a civil war, which would very probably bring on the total destruction of the opposite party. The Queen Christina herself was brought to assent to this view of things; and the king caused a document to be drawn up in the nature of a codicil to his will, which restored the male line of succession, but he strictly commanded that it should be kept entirely secret till after his death. The next day the king was seized with a lethargy, and lay insensible for many hours, nor was it supposed by any around him that he would ever recover. Impatient to worship the rising sun, Calomarde communicated the contents of the important document to Don Carlos, and crowds flocked to the palace of the prince to secure their future fortunes; the momentous intelligence became public, and roused all the apprehensions of the liberals of Madrid. The queen's sister, the Princess Luisa Carlota of Naples, wife of the king's brother Don Francisco, was a woman of strong passions and masculine resolution: she hurried to the palace of San Ildefonso, where Ferdinand was lying, now recovering from his lethargy, summoned Calomarde to her presence, reproached him with his treachery, and told him not to flatter himself that his baseness would escape its deserved chastisement. The princess next sent for the codicil and tore it to pieces with her own hands. When this could be done with impunity, Calomarde might augur what he had to expect he secretly left the palace, was concealed for some days in Madrid, then took refuge in a convent, and finally made his way in disguise to the frontiers, pursued by officers with the king's orders for his confinement in the citadel of Minorca. A sergeant and party of soldiers arrested him on the border of France, but were prevailed

upon with the promise of a sum of money to let him pass, for which they were afterwards dismissed the service in disgrace. Calomarde's exertions in Don Carlos's cause failed to procure him the favour of Don Carlos. When, after the death of Ferdinand, the civil war broke out in the Basque provinces, he quitted France to offer his services at the head-quarters of the Pretender, he was refused even an interview, it is supposed from resentment at his weakness in allowing himself to be too easily defeated. With the exception of a visit to Rome, the rest of his life was spent in France, chiefly at Toulouse, where his very liberal charities to all his countrymen earned him the title of Father of the Spaniards, and where, after some years of dejection, he died on the 21st of June 1842, regretted by none but the recipients of his bounty. CALO'NNE, CHARLES ALEXANDRE DE, was born at Douai, January 20, 1734. Having attained distinction as a lawyer, he was made successively attorney-general to the parliament of Douai, intendant of Metz, inspector-general of finances, treasurer, and lastly minister of state. He found the finances in a state of great embarrassment, and being unable to fill up the deficit, he advised Louis XVI. to convoke the assembly of the notables in 1787, before whom he made his wellknown statement of the financial affairs of the kingdom. Being taxed with prodigality and malversation, he was dismissed by the king, and was succeeded by Brienne. Calonne retired to Flanders, and afterwards to England, where he spent the greater part of his latter years, and wrote numerous political and financial pamphlets. Although belonging to the royalist party, he was not extravagant in his opinions, and he therefore incurred the enmity of the more violent royalists. His 'Tableau de l'Europe en Novembre,' 1795; Pensées sur ce qu'on a fait et ce qu'on n'auroit pas dû faire,' 8vo, 1796; Des Finances publiques de la France,' 1797, &c., afford materials for the history of those times. In 1802 he obtained leave of Bonaparte to return to France, where he died in October of the same year.

CALPURNIUS, TITUS JULIUS, a Latin poet and a native of Sicily, has left eleven eclogues, written somewhat in the manner of Virgil's, whom he seems to have imitated. He is believed to have lived in the 3rd century, and enjoyed the favour of the emperor Carus; but nothing very definite is known respecting him. His Latinity is better than his taste, and his language more tolerant than his subject or his mode of treating it. These eclogues have often been edited, and are printed in the Poetæ Latini Minores' of Burmann. An excellent revision of the text was published by Glaeser, Göttingen, 1842.

CALVERT, DENIS, sometimes called FIAMMINGO, a distinguished painter in his time, especially in landscape, was born at Antwerp about 1555, or, according to Oretti, in 1565. He settled early in Bologna, and studied there, first with Fontana, and afterwards with Sabbatini, with whom he visited Rome and assisted in some works there. After a stay of some time in Parma, Calvert returned to Bologna and opened a school there, which became very celebrated, and was numerously attended: he is said to have taught 137 painters. His school was unrivalled in Bologna until the establishment of the famous school of the Caracci, which in a few years completely superseded it. Some of the greatest scholars however of the Caracci had been students in the school of Calvert, as Domenichino, Guido, and Albani, three of the most famous of the Bolognese painters.

Calvert died at Bologna in 1619. He is spoken of with great respect by Malvasia and other Italian historians of art. There is nothing peculiarly Flemish in his style, unless it be his colour, in which he excelled, and on account of which he was greatly esteemed by the Bolognese painters. His pictures, of which there are still several in Bologna, are strictly in an Italian style of design; in landscape he was superior to any of his Bolognese contemporaries. His masterpieces are a St. Michael in the church of San Petronio, and a Purgatory alle Grazie. The majority of his pictures were of small size and painted on copper.

(Malvasia, Felsina Pittrice; Lanzi, Storia Pittorica, &c.) CALVERT, GEORGE. [BALTIMORE, LORD.]

CALVIN, JOHN, was born on the 10th of July 1509, at Noyon in Picardy, where his father, Gerard Cauvin, was by trade a cooper. His parents being of respectable character, but in humble circumstances, young Calvin, who had early shown a pious disposition, was taken under the protection of a family of wealth in the place, and sent by them to the University of Paris to study for the church. At the age of twelve he obtained from the bishop a benefice in the cathedral of Noyon, to which, in about five years afterwards, was added the cure of Monteville; but this he exchanged two years after for the cure of Pont-l'Evêque. All this time he was pursuing his studies, and had not even received priest's orders. His father now chauged his mind as to the destination of his son, and desired him to turn his attention to the law as the sure road to wealth and honour. This change was not unacceptable to Calvin, who, from his perusal of the Scriptures—a copy of which was furnished him by Robert Olavetan, who was a fellow-scholar, and likewise a native of Noyon-had already been convinced of many of the errors of the Romish Church. He accordingly left Paris, and repaired first to Orléans, where he studied under Peter Stella, and then to Bruges, where Andrew Alciat filled the chair of law; and where also, which was more important to Calvin's future character, Milchior Wolmar, the reformer, taught him the Greek

tongue. Here Calvin was confirmed in the doctrines of the Reformation, and began indeed to preach them in the villages. His father however dying at this time, he returned to Noyon, but after a short period went to Paris, where, in the year 1532, he published his Commentaries on Seneca's two books, 'De Clementia.' Calvin now resigned his benefices, and devoted himself to divinity. The following year, Cop, the rector of the University of Paris, having occasion to read a public discourse on the festival of All Saints' Day, Calvin persuaded him to declare his opinion on the new doctrines. This brought upon them both the indignation of the Sorbonne and parliament, and they were forced to leave the city. Calvin went to several places, and at length to Angoulême, where he got shelter in the house of Louis du Tallet, a canon of Angoulême, and supported himself some time there by teaching Greek. It was there he composed the greater part of his 'Institutes of the Christian Religion,' which were published about two years afterwards. The Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I., having shown him some countenance in respect of his learning and abilities, and no doubt also of his sufferings, he returned to Paris in the year 1534 under her protection; but persecution being again threatened, he quitted France the same year, having first published a work, which he called 'Psychopannychia,' to confute the error of those who held that the soul remained in a state of sleep between death and the resurrection, and retired to Basel in Switzerland, where he published the Institutes,' which he dedicated to Francis I., in an elegant Latin epistle. The design of the 'Institutes' was to exhibit a full view of the doctrines of the reformers; and as no similar work had appeared since the Reformation, and the peculiarities of the Romish Church were attacked in it with great force and vigour, it immediately became highly popular. It soon went through several editions; it was translated by Calvin himself into French, and has since been translated into all the principal modern languages. Its effect upon the Christian world has been so remarkable as to entitle it to be looked upon as one of those books that have changed the face of society.

After the publication of this great work Calvin went to Italy to visit the reformers there, and was received with marked distinction by the learned Duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Louis XII. But notwithstanding her protection, the Inquisition opened upon him, and he was obliged to seek safety in flight. He returned to France, but soon left it again, and in the month of August 1536 arrived at Geneva, where the reformed religion had been the same year publicly established. There, at the urgent request of Farel, Viret, and other eminent reformers, by whom that revolution had been achieved, he became a preacher of the Gospel, and professor, or rather lecturer on divinity. Farel was then the most distinguished person in the place; he was twenty years older than Calvin, who was in the twenty-seventh year of his age; but their objects were the same, and their learning, virtue, and zeal alike, and these were now combined for the complete reformation of Geneva, and the diffusion of their principles throughout Europe. In the month of November a plan of church government and a confession of faith were laid before the public authorities for their approval. Beza makes Calvin the author of these productions; but others, with perhaps greater reason, attribute them to Farel. There is little doubt however that Calvin was consulted in their composition, and still less that he lent his powerful aid to secure their sanction and approval by the people in the month of July 1537. The same year the Council of Geneva conferred on Farel the honour of a burgess of the city, in token of their respect and gratitude. But the popular will was not prepared for the severe discipline of the reformers, and in a short time the people resisted some innovations on their religious practices, and, under the direction of a faction, met in a public assembly and expelled Farel and Calvin from the place. Calvin repaired to Berne, and then to Strasbourg, where he was appointed professor of divinity and minister of a French church, into which he introduced his own form of church government and discipline. In his absence great efforts were made to get the Genevese to return to the communion of the Church of Rome, particularly by Cardinal Sadolet, who wrote to them earnestly to that effect; but Calvin, ever alive to the maintenance of the principles of the Reformation, disappointed all the expectations of his enemies, and confirmed the Genevese in the new faith, addressing to them two powerful and affectionate letters, and replying to that written by Sadolet. While at Strasbourg also Calvin published a treatise on the Lord's Supper, in which he combated the opinions both of the Roman Catholics and Lutherans, and at the same time explained his own views of that ordinance. Here too he published his 'Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans.' Calvin got acquainted with Castalio during his residence at Strasbourg, and procured for him the situation of a regent at Geneva; and it was during his stay in this city that by the advice of his friend Bucer he married Idellet, the widow of an Anabaptist preacher just deceased.

In November of the same year he and Farel were solicited by the Council of Geneva to return to their former charge in that city; in May 1541 their banishment was revoked; and in September following Calvin was received into the city amidst the congratulations of his flock, Farel remaining at Neufchâtel, where he was loved and respected. Calvin did not trifle in the peculiarly favourable circumstances in which

BIOG, DIV. VOL. II.

he was now placed. He immediately laid before the council his scheme of church government, and after it was adopted and published by authority, which was on the 20th of November 1541, he was unhesitating in its enforcement. His promptitude and firmness were now conspicuous; he was the ruling spirit in Geneva; and the church which he had established there he wished to make the mother and seminary of all the reformed churches. His personal labours were unceasing: he preached every day for two weeks of each month; he gave three lessons in divinity every week; he assisted at all the deliberations of the consistory and company of pastors; he defended the principles of the reformation against all who attacked them; he explained those principles both in writing and discourse; and maintained a correspondence with every part of Europe. Geneva however was the common centre of all his exertions, and its prosperity peculiarly interested him, though less for its own sake than to make it a fountain for the supply of the world. He established an academy there, the high character of which was long maintained; he made the city a literary mart, and encouraged the French refugees and others who sought his advice to apply themselves to the occupation of a printer or librarian; and having finished the ecclesiastical regimen, he directed his attention to the improvement of the municipal government of the place. That Calvin should, in the circumstances in which he was now placed, show marks of intolerance towards others is not surprising; and to seek a palliation of his guilt we need not go back to the time when he belonged to the Church of Rome, nor yet to the notions of civil and religious liberty prevalent in his age. We have only to reflect on the constitution of the human mind, and the constant care necessary to prevent power in any hands from degenerating into tyranny. His conduct towards Servetus [SERVETUS] has been justly condemned, and has drawn down upon him the epithet of a most cruel and atrocious monster;' yet the punishment of Servetus was approved of by men of undoubted worth, and even by the mild Melancthon. In 1554, the year following Servetus's death, Calvin published a work in defence of the doctrine of the Trinity against the errors of Servetus, and to prove the right of the civil magistrate to punish heresy; Beza the same year published a work on the like subject, in reply to the treatise of Castalio. Of all the testimonies to the merits of Calvin at this time, the most unsuspected is that of the canons of Noyon, who in 1556 publicly returned thanks to God on occasion of his recovery from an illness which it was thought would prove mortal. The state of Calvin's health prevented him going in 1561 to the famous Conference of Poissy; an assembly which in his view promised to be of so much consequence, and which was indeed remarkable in this respect, that from that time the followers of Calvin became known as a distinct sect, bearing the name of their leader. Amidst all his sufferings however, neither his public functions nor his literary labours ceased: he continued to edify the church of Geneva by his sermons and his intercourse among the people, and to instruct Europe by his works; and to the last he maintained the same firmness of character which had distinguished him through life. On his death-bed he took God to witness that he had preached the gospel purely, and exhorted all about him to walk worthy of the divine goodness: his delicate frame gradually became quite emaciated, and on the 27th of May 1564 he died without a struggle, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.

The person of Calvin was middle-sized and naturally delicate; his habits were frugal and unostentatious; and he was so sparing in his food, that for many years he had only one meal in the day. He had a clear understanding, an extraordinary memory, and a firmness and inflexibility of purpose which no opposition could overcome, no variety of objects defeat, no vicissitude shake. In his principles he was devout and sincere, and the purity of his character in private life was without a stain. His writings are very numerous; but except his Christian Institutes,' his commentaries on the Bible, and a few others, they have long been covered with undisturbed dust, though in their day none of his works were without their influence. There have been various collections of his works. In 1552 all his minor pieces, or 'Opuscula,' were collected and published at Geneva. In 1576 a similar collection was made of his theological tracts; and the same year Beza published a collection of his letters, with a life of Calvin. We find also in Senebier ('Hist. Lett. de Geneve,' tom. i.) not only a list of all Calvin's publications, but a catalogue of sermons preached by him which yet remain in manuscript in the public library of Geneva. Calvin's Commentaries on various books of the Old and New Testaments,' his Tracts relating to the Reformation,' his Institutes,' and some others of his writings, have been newly translated into English, or the old translations revised, and published within the last twelve or fourteen years under the auspices of the Calvin Translation Society at Edinburgh. But perhaps a still more important work as illustrating the character of the man and his times is a new edition of his letters, now in course of publication, including a very great number previously inedited :-'Letters of John Calvin, compiled from the original manuscripts, and edited with historic notes by Dr. J. Bonnet; translated by D. Constable, 8vo,' Edinb., 1855, &c.