to cope with the golden eagle, and to prey upon hares, rabbits, game birds, and even young deer. In length it may measure over 2 feet; the color is rusty yellow, varied with brown and black. No true nest is made, and the eggs are two or three in number.

The eagle owl of America (B. virginianus). the Great Horned or Hoot Owl, is somewhat smaller, but very bold and powerful, and carries off with ease almost any inhabitant of the poultry yard. It is found in nearly all parts of North and South America. See OWL.

Eagle Pass, city, Texas, county seat of Maverick county, on the Rio Grande, 80 miles below its junction with the Pecos River, and on the Southern Pacific and Mexican International Railroads; 165 miles southwest of San Antonio. It is a shipping point for agricultural produce, live stock, hides, grain, and wool, and carries on a flourishing trade with Mexico. Coal is mined in the vicinity. Pop. (1900) 2,779; (1910) 3,536.

Eagle Ray. See RAY.

Eagle, Red, ORDER OF THE, a Prussian order of knighthood, founded in 1705, and second in distinction to the Order of the Black Eagle. The insignia is a white Maltese cross with four red eagles between the arms, the monogram 'FWR,' and the motto Sincere et constanter ('sincere and constant'). See ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD.

Eagles, Order of, a fraternal and benefit society, founded in 1898. In 1918 it was composed of the Grand Aerie and 2,056 subordinate aeries; the total membership was more than 400,000. Since its organization it has disbursed $17,500,000 in benefits. Secretary, John S. Parry, 1023 Cherry Street, Kansas City, Mo. Eagle Wood. See ALOES WOOD.

Eakins, THOMAS (1844), American painter and sculptor, was born in Philadelphia. He studied painting at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and under Gérôme at Paris, and studied sculpture with Dumont. He has been a professor and lecturer on anatomy and painting in several schools of art, and is a member of the National Academy of Design. He has specialized in pictures of early American domestic life, scenes from American sports, negro characters, and portraits. Among the last .are those of Louis Kenton, Cardinal Martinelli, Carroll Beckwith, Dr. Gilbert L. Parker, Clinic of Professor Gross, and Clinic of Professor Agnew. His Chess Players is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cello Player in the Pennsylvania Academy, and The Cruci

Ealdred. See ALDRED.

Ealing, 'ling, town, Middlesex, England, a suburb of London; 9 miles west of St. Paul's Cathedral. The town is modern and progressive, and has increased rapidly in population. Marlborough, Fielding, and Byron lived here, and Thomas Huxley was born here. Pop. (1901) 33,031; (1911) 61,235.

Eames, āmz, EMMA (1867), American operatic soprano, was born in Shanghai, China, her father being an American lawyer resident there. She was brought as a child to Boston, and developing a remarkable soprano voice, she studied there under Clara Munger, and subsequently in Paris with Madame Marchesi and in Brussels with Professor Gevaert. In 1889 she made a triumphant début in Paris in Romeo and Juliet, after being rehearsed by Gounod himself, and two years later repeated her success in London and New York. She has since sung regularly in French, German, Italian, and English rôles in New York, London, and Madrid. In 1891 Mme. Eames married Julian Story, the portrait painter; in 1907 they separated, and in 1911 she was married to Emilio de Gogorza, the singer.

Eames, ēmz, WILBERFORCE (1855), American librarian and bibliographer, was born in Newark, N. J. He early devoted himself to the study of bibliography, in which he has won a prominent place. He has held posts as librarian in various important libraries, including the Lenox Library, New York, the New York Public Library, in which he was known as Lenox librarian, and the Bibliographical Society of America, which he has directed since its origin in June, 1909. Besides editing Sabin's Dictionary of Books Relating to America and a comparative edition (with translation) of Columbus' Letter to Sanchez on the Discovery of America, he has written List of Editions of the Margarita Philosophica (1886), contributions to Pitting's Indian Bibliographies, and Early New England Catechisms (1898).

Ear, a sense organ which subserves two distinct functions: it enables the organism to perceive vibrations ('hear') and to maintain equilibrium. Of these the second is probably the primitive function, and it is the one which predominates in at least the ma

jority of invertebrates and in the lower vertebrates.

Comparative. In its simplest form the ear is a sac-like infolding of the skin (ectoderm), lined by sensory hairs, and containing solid particles-ear stones or otoliths (q. v.)- suspended in a fluid. As the organism moves, the ear stones affect now one and now another set of sense cells, and thus information of the direction of movement is conveyed to the nervous system, and equilibrium is consequently maintained. The ear stones must also be affected to a certain extent in all cases by vibrations propagated through the medium in which the animal exists. The chief modifications in form have reference to the position of the ear sac-i.e., whether it retains its primitive connection with and opening to the surface, or whether it sinks inward and becomes a closed sac.

In fishes, only the internal ear is present. In amphibians, the acquisition of a terrestrial life has led to the specialization of an area of the skin to form a receptive drum or tympanum, which is separated from the internal ear by a space called the middle ear. This space communicates by a relatively wide opening with the throat, the opening being the homologue of a tube called the Eustachian tube (q. v.) in higher forms. Similar conditions exist in reptiles; but in birds the drum has sunk inward, so that there is now an auditory passage leading from the exterior to the drum. A final complication is found in mammals, where we have added the external ear, forming a funnel which conveys the sound down the auditory passage to the drum. The middle ear of the higher vertebrate, with its Eustachian canal, has apparently developed from the anterior gill arch of the ancestral form.

Human Ear.-The apparatus of hearing, as it exists in man and the mammalia, is composed of three parts-the External Ear, the Middle Ear or Tympanum, and the Internal Ear or Labyrinth.

The external ear consists of two portions, the auricle or pinna (the part popularly recognized as the ear), and the auditory canal or external meatus. The auditory canal, the outer end of which is visible, ends internally at the 'drum,' or membrana tympani, a stretched membrane on which the sound waves beat. This canal is protected by an abundance of ceruminous glands which furnish an adhesive yellow secretion, the wax or cerumen (q. v.).

The middle ear or tympanum is a cavity filled with air received through the Eustachian tube, and holding three small bones,

A. General view of ear in section: 1, outer ear; 2, external auditory meatus; 3, drum or tympanum; 4, cavity of tympanum; 5, malleus; 6, incus; 7, stapes: 8, labyrinth; 9, auditory nerves; 10, Eustachian tube; 11, apex of petrous bone; 12, cochlea; 13, semicircular canals. B. The bony labyrinth, section; 14, superior semicircular canal; 15, posterior canal; 16, exterior canal; 17, spiral tube of cochlea. c. Stapes. D. Incus. E. Malleus.

The Eustachian tube is a membranous canal, of very small diameter, and about 11⁄2 inches in length, which opens into the middle ear at one end, and into the back of the throat or pharynx at the other. It is partly osseous, but chiefly cartilaginous. Through it air reaches the tympanum, so that atmospheric pressure is kept equal on both sides of the drum.

The internal ear or labyrinth, so called from its complicated formation communicates with the middle ear through the fenestra ovalis (oval window), which receives the foot plate of the last bone (stapes or stirrup) of the chain in the middle ear. The internal ear holds the end fibres of the auditory nerve, through which sensations of sound are carried to the brain (see NERVOUS SYSTEM). It consists of channels in the bone (petrous bone), very much convoluted, and divided by anatomists into the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea (snail's shell, from the shape). All these canals communicate with one another.

Sound waves are carried by the auditory canal against the tympanic membrane. This vibrates, and its vibrations are communicated to the chain of bones in the middle ear, through which sensations are conveyed to the tiny endings of the auditory nerve in the internal ear, and thence to the auditory centre in

the brain. The semicircular canals hold serous fluid, and seem to be connected with the sense of equilibration or balance.

"Diseases.-The chief aural diseases arise from various forms of inflammation or otitis. While slight inflammation of the auditory canal in the outer ear may be sufficiently treated by soothing applications of warm poultices, syringing with warm water, opium, etc., the inflammation frequently reaches the drum, and causes acute pain, which can often be relieved only by puncture, to reduce pressure and liberate pus. Pain is still more acute if the inflammation is deeper, in those parts which, being surrounded by bone, have very little elasticity. Earache may also be caused by decayed teeth, irritation about the throat, or diseased conditions of the nose and bones of the skull. (See OTITIS.)

An occasional and very serious complication of inflammation in the ear is an abscess in the mastoid cells, which are cavities in the bone behind the ear. When this occurs it has to be freely opened and drained before it spreads to the brain. (See MASTOIDITIS.)

Deafness-varying in degree from slight impairment of hearing to absolute inability to perceive sounds-may be due to a great variety of causes, and any of these causes may produce not only deafness, but noises in the head. Thus the auditory canal may be blocked by wax, the products of skin eruptions affecting its lining membrane, tumors, masses of fungus, the results of inflammation, etc. The tympanic membrane may be displaced or thickened, the ossicles may be impeded in their movements by the presence of exudation, or by fibrous adhesions or swelling of the mucous membrane within the tympanum. Then again these parts may be injured either by disease or by violence. The auditory nerve may be affected in any part of its course from the auditory centre to the labyrinth, and thus deafness may result. (See DEAFNESS.)

Deafness, if of sudden onset, is often due to catarrh or cold affecting the Eustachian tube (see CATARRH; CORYZA). Catarrh may also so much increase the natural quantity of wax in the outer ear as to interfere with vibrations of the drum. It can be removed by softening for two or three nights with glycerine and water, and then syringing with warm water. Syringing is rarely done effectually except by a skilled hand.

The most common injuries to the ear are wounds of the auricle, rupture of the drum, and injuries due to fracture of the skull. Ver

tigo, or giddiness, is a frequent symptom of ear disease, and can often be relieved or cured by attention to this organ. See VERTIGO; EAR TRUMPETS.

Consult Roosa's Practical Treatise on Diseases of the Ear; Meyer's Introduction to the Mechanics of the Inner Ear (1907); Bárány's Physiology and Pathology of the Ear (1910); Keeler's Modern Otology (1930); Kerrison's Diseases of the Ear (1931); Portmann's Traité de technique opératoire oto-rhinolaryngologique (1932).

woman.

Earhart, AMELIA (1899- ), American aviatrix, born Atchison, Kan. She studied at Columbia University and served with the Canadian V. A. D. during the War. Her flying training was received at Boston and Los Angeles. In 1928 she flew with Stultz (pilot) and L. Gordon from Newfoundland to Wales, 2,000 miles, in 20 hrs. 40 min., the first airplane crossing by a She flew, solo, across the United States in the same year. In May, 1932, she made a solo flight from Newfoundland to Ireland in 131⁄2 hours, the first solo crossing since Lindbergh's historic feat. The King of the Belgians decorated the aviatrix and Congress awarded her the Distinguished Flying Cross. In 1931 Miss Earhart was married to George Palmer Putnam, publisher and explorer.

Earl, an English title of nobility, next to a marquis and above a viscount (see NOBILITY). Among the Northern races of Europe a jarl or corl was one of the noble class, as opposed to the ceorl, or churl, who was the mere freeman. Of the noble class, a certain number, under the name of ealdormen, were made gover

nors and judges over particular districts. William the Conqueror, by making earldoms hereditary in England, probably took the first step to convert a title of office into one of dignity. The title of earl continued to be the highest hereditary dignity till Edward III. created his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, duke of Cornwall (1337).

The wife of a British earl is styled a countess. An earl's eldest son bears by courtesy his father's second title, generally 'viscount,' the younger sons being styled 'honorables,' and the daughters 'ladies.' The Continental equivalent of an earl is a count (q.v.). See CORONET; ADDRESS, FORMS OF.

Earle, ALICE MORSE (18531911), American writer, was born in Worcester, Mass., and married Henry Earle in 1874. She is known for her historical works dealing with the Colonial period: Sabbath in Puritan New England (1891); Customs and Fashions in Old New England (1893); Life of Margaret Winthrop (1894); Diary of a Boston School Girl (1894); Colonial Dames and Goodwives (1895); Curious Punishments of Bygone Days (1897); Colonial Days in Old New York (1897); Home Life in Colonial Days (1898); Child Life in Colonial Days (1899); Stage Coach and Tavern Days (1900); Old Time Gardens (1901); Sun Dials and Roses of Yesterday (1903); Two Centuries of Costume in America (1903).

Earle, FRANKLIN SUMNER (1856-1929), American botanist, was professor of biology at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (1896-1901): assistant curator at the New York Botanical Garden (1901-4); director of the Central Agronomical Institute of Cuba (1904-6); in 1908 became consulting agriculturist to the Cuban-American Sugar Company, and in 1911 president of the Cuba Fruit Exchange. In 1906 he served as president of the Botanical Society of America. He wrote Southern Agriculture (1907).

Earle, JOHN (1824-1903), English philologist, was professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford from 1849, and did much to encourage the study of that language in England. He published: Gloucester Fragments (1861); Two Saxon Chronicles Parallel (1865); Dawn of European Literature (1884); English Prose (1890); The Deeds of Beowulf (1892); The Philology of the English Tongue; A Simple Grammar of English Now in Use (1898); The Alfred Jewel (1901).

Earle, MORTIMER LAMSON

(1864-1905), American classical scholar. In 1898-1900 he was lecturer in Greek at Columbia University, and in 1900 became professor of classical philology at Barnard College, New York. His essays were collected in Classical Papers of M. L. Earle, with a Memoir (1912).

Earle, PLINY (1809-92), American psychiatrist. He studied the treatment of the insane in foreign countries for several years, and was connected with psychopathic institutions at Frankford, Pa., New York City, and Pittsfield, Mass., until 1864, when he became superintendent of the Massachusetts State Lunatic Asylum at Northampton, retiring in 1885. He was founder of the American Medical Association. He devised new methods of treating the insane, especially in the direction of affording them amusements and occupations. He published: Blood Letting in Mental Disorders (1854); Psychologic Medicine (1867); Psychopathic Hospital of the Future (1867); Curability of Insanity (1877).

a

Earle, THOMAS (1796-1849), American lawyer, brother of Pliny Earle (q.v.). He followed a mercantile career for a time, then studied and practised law in Philadelphia, and edited various newspapers. He advocated the suffrage for negroes, and was nominated for the Vice-Presidency by the Liberty Party in 1840. He wrote various legal works and a Life of Benjamin Lundy.

Earlham College, ürl'am, a co-educational institution under the control of the Orthodox Friends at Earlham, Ind., near Richmond, founded in 1847 as a school and reorganized as a college in 1859. It had the first astronomical observatory and the first chemical laboratory for college students in the State. Courses are offered in music, household economics, and literary science. Extension work is carried on. See COLLEGE.

Earlington, city, Hopkins county. Ky., on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad; 54 miles south of Evansville, Ind. It is the centre of a coal mining district and has railroad and machine shops. Pop. (1930) 3,309.

Earl Marshal, an English official who controls the Heralds' Office or the College of Arms. To this officer of state is also intrusted the duty of looking after all state functions.

Earlom, RICHARD (17431822). English mezzotint engraver, was engaged by Boydell to detect forgeries, and to engrave the Liber Veritatis, or prints of authentic drawings of Claude Lorraine. As a mezzo

tint engraver his skill is seen in over sixty plates of which six after Hogarth's Marriage à la Mode are the best known, and two flower pieces after Van Huysum the most prized.

Early, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-94), American soldier, a prominent Confederate general in the Civil War, was born in Franklin county, Va. He was graduated from the U. S. Military Academy in 1837, and was appointed lieutenant of artillery. but soon resigned. He studied and practised law, and was elected to the Virginia legislature. During the Mexican War he was major of a Virginia volunteer regiment. He strongly opposed secession in the Virginia Convention of 1861, but after that State joined the Confederacy he entered the army as colonel of the Twenty-fourth Virginia Infantry. For his services at the First Battle of Bull Run he was made a brigadier-general. He was wounded at Williamsburg, and played an important part at the Second Battle of Bull Run and at Antietam. He commanded a division at Fredericksburg, the right wing under Lee at Chancellorsville (q.v.). and as a major-general was conspicuous at Gettysburg.

In July, 1864, Early drove back Gen. Sigel from Winchester, crossed the Potomac, defeated Gen. Lew Wallace on the Monocacy (q.v.), and was able to march within sight of Washington. Subsequently he sent into Pennsylvania a part of his cavalry, which retired after burning Chambersburg. In September he was defeated by Gen. Sheridan (q.v.) at Opequan Creek and at Fisher's Hill. On Oct. 19 he surprised Sheridan's forces at Cedar Creek in the latter's absence. but Sheridan reached the field in time to turn the tide of battle (see CEDAR CREEK). In March, 1865. Early was defeated at Waynesborough. by General Custer, and was retired. He never took the oath of allegiance to the United States. He wrote Memoir of the Last Year of the War (1867).

Early English (also termed 'Christian Pointed'), the term applied to that form of Gothic architecture in which the pointed arch was first employed in Great Britain. Early English began in the twelfth century. Norman arches, heavy in construction and rounded in form. gave place to the tapering, pointed style.

Early English architecture may be divided into two sub-periods. In the earlier period the doorway is deeply recessed and sculptured, but its later development is more

ornate. Windows were mullioned, richly cusped, and tripled, the lower lights flanking a central one which dominated them. Finials and crockets became floriated, elaborated, and multiplied. Vaulting became more complex, ornamentation more profuse. An excellent example is the eastern part of Westminster Abbey and its chapter-house; also Salisbury Cathedral, which is of the Early

Details of Early English
Architecture.

1. Capital (Durham); 2, capital (Wells); 3. window (Lincoln, chapter-house); 4, finial (Lincoln. c. 1260); 5, 6, bases; 7, 8, arch mouldings; 9, pier and plan; 10, moulding; 11, crocket (Lincoln)."

English style almost throughout. The nave and transepts of Lincoln, the transepts of York, the nave and transepts of Wells, the west front of Peterborough, and many other examples, prove the early part of the 12th century to have been one of unparalleled inspiration and splendid achieve

ment.

Earn. (1.) Loch, par. of Balquhidder and Comrie, Perthshire, Scotland, 6 m. long by m. broad. It is drained by the Earn R. Ardvoirlich House, at its s. extremity, is the 'Darnlinvarach' of Scott's Legend of Montrose. (2.) River, Perthshire, issues from E. end of Loch Earn, flows E., and enters the Tay after a course of 46 m. It is navigable as far as Bridge of Earn for vessels of fifty tons. It is well stocked with salmon and trout.

Earnest. Earnest is given by the buyer to the seller to mark the final assent of both sides to a bargain. It may be in money or in kind (it was often a ring). There has been much discussion as to the exact meaning of the word and of the effect of earnest. It is found in use in Roman law in connection with contracts and later in the common law of England and in statutes. In general in contracts of sale it is something given by one party to the other to indicate that both sides

.

assent to the bargain, but whether it is part of the purchase price or whether it is something given separate and apart from the price is a matter of uncertainty. Earnest is at all events forfeited upon breach of the contract. In sales it has been questioned whether title passes upon the giving of earnest, but the more general view is that it was evidence of sale only, and title did not pass unless there was something else to show that this was the intention of the parties. Earnest has now very generally fallen into disuse, and the practice of making part payment or executing a written agreement under the Statute of Frauds is what is now usually done in binding a bargain, requiring more than a verbal agreement. See STATUTE OF FRAUDS.

Earring, an ornament, consisting of a plain ring or loop, to which a pendant is attached, suspended from the lobe of the ear, which is bcred for the purpose. Among many Eastern nations earrings were worn by both sexes, and sailers still occasionally wear them. The early Egyptians designed beautiful and very costly earrings, the ring terminating in beasts' heads and kindred devices. In the classic epoch of Greece earrings were worn only by women, and consisted of pearls and precious stones. Instead of a true ring, the ornamental pendant was sometimes suspended by a plain hook of gold or silver. Schliemann, in Mycena (1878) and Tiryns (1886), figures a very primitive golden earring, consisting of a quadrangular golden wire turned twice round.

con

Earth, THE, the planet home. of man, was for many ages popularly believed to be flat, long after Greek philosophers had proved that it was globular. Until about four centuries ago it was sidered, even by the learned, to be the centre of the solar system and of the universe. Its rotation was understood in the 15th century, but the heliocentric theory is associated with Copernicus, who used it at the beginning of the 16th century to explain the movements of the heavenly bodies. Kepler (1571-1630), by means of laborious calculations, empirically discovered the laws of terrestrial motion; and Newton, in the Principia (1687), enunciated the universal laws of motion and gravitation.

Orbit, Revolution, and Rotation. Of the eight large planets, the earth is third nearest the sun, round which it moves in an elliptical orbit. Its distance from the sun averages 92,900,000

100,000 m., and it is 3,000,000 m. nearer it at perihelion (Jan. 1) than at aphelion (July 3). The

length of its orbit is 584,000,000 m., and its mean velocity round it is 18.5 m. per second. The eccentricity of the earth's orbit is 1.01675 (i.e. about 1/60 of the semi-major axis), but it is not constant, and probably varies from 0 to 0.07. At the present time it is diminishing 0.00000042

per annum.

The movements of the earth have given rise to two modes of measuring time. The period occupied by one revolution of the earth in its orbit is the measure of the year. The inclination of the earth's axis to the equator, and, in a minor way, the variation in distance from the sun affect the intensity of heat received at different times of the year (see CLIMATE), giving rise to the phenomena of the seasons.

The earth rotates round an axis. The period occupied by one rotation is the measure of the day. The speed of rotation varies from zero at the poles to a maximum at the equator, where it is 1,037 m. per hour.

The earth's axis is not at right angles to the plane of its orbit, which is called the plane of the ecliptic. The angle between the planes of the ecliptic and of the terrestrial equator is called the obliquity of the ecliptic, and measures 23° 27' 7" (1902). The minimum will be 224° and the maximum 2540, but the rate of change, like the variations of eccentricity, is not constant. The earth's axis is not perfectly stable, but oscillates periodically about 0.3".

Figure and Dimensions of the Earth. The distances between parallels of latitude increase from the equator to the poles, so that the curvature is greater near the equator than near the poles. The measurement of a meridional arc is one of the most important determinations, for from it the dimensions of the earth are calculated. (See GEODESY.) The calculated values are: Length of one degree of latitude at lat. 0.... 45. "6 90..

362.746 ft. .364,605" .366,480

The force of gravitation increases in value from the equator to the poles, thus confirming the belief that the earth is flattened at the poles and bulges out at the equator. The estimated values are: Length of

Lat.

0

45

90

Seconds

Pendulum.

Value of Gravity

39.02 in. 32.09 ft. per sec. per sec. 39.12"

39.22"

32.17 32.26"

64