tionality of the plan-as a proper exercise of the taxing power. Laid up, out of work, with children to provide for, or ignorant of the language and his rights, the injured man has, under the old liability laws, been a poor bargainer with claim agents, who have had the experience of many cases to show them the weak spots in human nature or the courts, and to whom nothing was so advantageous as delay. The public adjustment plan as a means to fend against this evil is a great contribution to the movement for justice in the matter.

Other noteworthy features of the New York act are that it grants life-long compensation for permanent disability; grants compensation of 66% per cent. of wages, while none of the other States grants more than 50 per cent.; grants to widows compensation for the entire period of widowhood; and grants compensation to surviving children until they reach the age of 18 years, which is two years more than is granted by any other State or by any other country except Italy. Some of the features in which the act does not equal the standards set by mature European experience are: The application of the act is limited to 42 groups of industries, and many wage-earners are thus excluded from its benefits, just how many can only be determined after many judicial decisions have been rendered; the definition of the term 'injury' definitely excludes occupational diseases and opens the door to many exceptions by judicial construction; the waiting period of two weeks before compensation begins is excessive; a rigid scale of compensation for partial disability on account of injury to various parts of the body, regardless of the fact that the same organs have a very different economic value to workers in different trades; compensation for partial disability is inequitable in that less favorable provision is made for the graver permanent partial injuries; compensation for partial permanent disability is unwisely distributed, for although the injury is partial only, two-thirds of the wages are granted for a limited time, and unless the impairment has been at least two-thirds, for that time, the injured person really receives more than he was receiving before the injury; the disregard of the rights of the 'illegitimate' child in the matter of compensation is out of harmony with the modern tendency of progressive thought to subject our moral values to a radical revision; the entire question of organization of medical aid has been left untouched; and there is an entire absence of civil service provi

sions in the administration of the

act.

FOREIGN COUNTRIES. — The most conspicuous feature of foreign legislation relating to compensation for industrial injuries has been its frequent change to adapt it to the changes in industrial organization which the development of the last century has brought about. In 1838 Prussia enacted a law which placed the railroads under a similar form of liability as that which had existed in the navigation and mining industries since the close of the Napoleonic Wars. Other countries of Continental Europe also modified the liability doctrine to fit conditions in the railroad industry. Late in the sixties. Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemburg authorized local governments to make deductions from earnings of factory and other workmen, to be paid into the local treasuries and used as an insurance or relief fund for the benefit of the workmen who were disabled either by sickness or accident. The German Empire in 1871 enacted as one of the first laws after its creation a liability law which probably represents the highest development of the method of compensating accidents on the basis of fault. In 1884 Germany enacted a law providing for national compulsory accident and sickness systems; and since then the leading industrial countries of the continent have been following the example of the Germans. Practically every year since 1884 the Imperial Legislature of Germany has had some phase of social insurance under discussion.

The essential principle of all foreign systems of accident indemnity is that the doctrine of fault is discarded, and an attempt made to provide for each industrial worker injured by accident some measure of relief from his misery, so that he shall become a pensioner of the industry which maimed him, and the industry may shift that burden by adding the expense of the pension to the cost of the product which the community must pay. In many of the foreign countries there also exists some compulsory provision for sick relief and superannuation of workers.

Germany. Since 1884, accident insurance has been compulsory for all workmen with annual income up to $714 in manufacture, carrying, transportation, forestry, allied trades, and agriculture. The duty to insure, covering all accidents without regard to cause or blame, rests on the employers, who (save as hereafter noted) pay the entire cost of such insurance. Such insurance, in practice, is carried

on by associations of employers in the several trades. The benefits to the workmen injured by accident under the law are (a) free medical treatment and payment of part wages up to twothirds of earnings, the money being provided in part by the sickness insurance fund to which the workmen contribute, in part by the employers, and in part by the employers' insurance associations; (b) funeral expenses and death benefit of twenty times daily wage, and provision for dependent relatives to sixty per cent. of annual earnings.

If the workman injures himself purposely, there is no compensation. If the injury has been wilfully caused by the employer, the workman may proceed in a semi-criminal action, and may thus receive additional compensation. Any disputes are settled without expense to the parties by an arbitration court composed of a government official and representatives of workmen and employers. The solvency of the employers' insurance associations is guaranteed by the state. A law enacted in 1899 introduced compulsory old age and invalidity insurance for wage earners with income of less than $480 annually. In July, 1911, all the legislation relating to the several branches of workmen's insurance in the German Empire was codified in one act.

Great Britain.-The British Workmen's Compensation Act of 1897, in effect, attached to every contract of employment in manufactures and dangerous trades, which it included, the condition that for all industrial accidents in the employment, compensation should be paid at certain specified rates by the employer to the employed-without regard to

the question of the employers' neglect. The old basis of liability was entirely disregarded. Under the law of 1897, in case of death the dependents of the employed receive either (a) three years' wages, or (b) $750, but in no event more than $1,500. In case of total incapacity, a weekly payment during incapacity of one-half weekly earnings, but not more than $5. If the incapacity is permanent, the permanent pension is one-half wages paid weekly, subject to commutation. In case of partial incapacity the payment is reduced. The act aimed at affording substantial relief from the consequence of misfortune but not complete indemnity.' The operation was limited practically to trades where mechanical power played a part. Domestic service and agriculture were not included.

In 1906, amendments to the act brought within its range certain diseases brought on by occu

pation and the act was extended to cover every employmentwhereas the 1897 act was limited to hazardous employments. In this respect the British law has gone further than that of any other country.

Of the English system, several points are to be noted. There is in it no provision for mutuality of contribution by employer and employed, as in the German; all the burden falls on the employer, who may insure or not, as he pleases, but if he desires to insure, the private companies are his only resource. The rate of compensation is higher than in any Continental country, though perhaps not ratably higher when compared with the respective wages paid. It has not as yet made any notable change in industrial relations or the status of union labor, save that the machinery of all accident settlements is usually now carried on in England by the unions. While the English act did not do away with the common-law liability of an employer, its operation has been so much more satisfactory that the common-law liability seems to be practically abandoned by the employed.

The

act, then, while not an insurance act, has created a new system of liability on a new basis, which has effectually bettered the condition of the working class.

Other Countries. — A ustria adopted a compulsory accident insurance system in 1887. Employers are required to insure in compulsory mutual associations under the supervision of government officials. The whole country is divided into seven districts for all industries, in addition to which there are separate associations for railroads and mining. Compensation is also granted for occupational diseases.

In

1894 Norway passed an act requiring employers to insure their employees against accidents in a state insurance department, and is the only country where the entire insurance is concentrated in one government office. In 1895 Finland passed a workmen's compensation act anticipating to some extent the British Act of 1897. Employers are required to insure, but have a ehoice between private companies and mutual associations without state institutions competing.

Following the enactment of the British act, other countries were quick to adopt the new policy. France and Denmark passed workmen's compensation acts in 1898 France has a voluntary insurance law allowing employers to insure in private companies or mutual associations with the National Accident Insurance Fund competing, but not

permitted to provide insurance against temporary disability. Compulsory insurance is proIvided for seamen in a special government institution. The security of payments is provided for, the guarantee fund being managed by the National Old Age Retirement Fund, and supported by special taxes on all employers covered by the act. This fund guarantees pension payments only, while compensation for temporary disability is secured by a preferred claim on the assets of the employer. France also provides compensation for occupational diseases. In Denmark insurance is voluntary in private companies or mutual associations, without state competition, except that the law requires compulsory insurance of seamen, either in mutual associations or in insurance companies. A state institution exists for voluntary insurance of fishermen or seamen not covered by the compulsory law.

In 1900 Spain, South Australia, and New Zealand adopted compensation acts on the English model. Spain has a voluntary law, and allows employers to insure in private companies or mutual associations without state competition. In South Australia the law extends also to disablement by occupational diseases. In 1901 Sweden passed a compensation law permitting insurance through a state department to be substituted for the legal liability; the Netherlands, a law requiring employers to insure in private companies or carry their own insurance, but all compensation to be paid by the Royal Insurance Bank which deals with the employer or insurance company; and Greece, a workmen's compensation law applying to the mining and metallurgical industries. The next year Luxemburg adopted the German compulsory insurance system, while British Columbia and Western Australia adopted the English plan of workmen's compensation.

In 1903 Belgium introduced the English system; and while the law specifies that the National Retirement Fund must provide accident insurance, this provision has never been put into operation. In the same year Italy made insurance against industrial accidents compulsory, with the choice of insuring in private companies or mutual associations with the state institution, the National Industrial Accident Insurance Institution, competing. For navigation and the Sicilian sulphur mines compulsory mutual associations have been created by special legislation.

Since 1903 seven constituents of the British Empire-Cape of

Good Hope (1905), Queensland (1905), Transvaal (1907), Alberta (1908), Quebec (1909), New South Wales (1910), Tasmania (1911)-as well as Russia (1903)-have passed workmen's compensation acts after the English model of 1897, and Hungary (1907) has declared its preference for the German system. Switzerland enacted a compulsory sickness and accident insurance law in June, 1911, which was accepted by a referendum vote of the Swiss people in February, 1912. Other countries which have adopted workmen's compensation acts are: Venezuela, mining only (1906), Mexico-Nuevo Leon (1906), Newfoundland (1908), Bulgaria (1908), Manitoba (1910), Nova Scotia (1910), Servia (1910), Peru (1911), Montenegro (1911), Japan (1911), Roumania (1912), and Portugal (1913)

An excellent feature of European experience is the demonstration that by a comprehensive plan of medical treatment, many injuries which were formerly classed as permanent disabilities may be removed, and the earning capacity of the injured person restored. Special institutions for the treatment of industrial injuries in Germany have had remarkable success along these lines. Experience has shown that where life pensions for injuries are paid, the insurance administration must adopt aggressive measures for the treatment of the injured.

In Austria, France, Germany, and Switzerland, the costs of disablements which result from handling lead, arsenic, hides which produce anthrax, and other forms of disablement, due to the occupation, which come more slowly but cause disability no less severe than accidents, such as the lung affections of the glass and metal grinders, and the comparative short working life of the miner, are expenses which are charged to the industry, although the workman and the state also contribute. In Great Britain and Canada the disabilities due to a specified list of occupational diseases are included under accidents entitled to compensation.

In the following countries compensation for diseases, including occupational diseases, must be provided for by sickness insurance funds established under systems of compulsory sickness insurance: Austria, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Luxemburg, Norway, Roumania, Russia, and Servia.

See ACCIDENTS, INDUSTRIAL; INSURANCE, INDUSTRIAL; PENSIONS, Industrial Pensions; SAFETY, INDUSTRIAL; TRADES, DanGEROUS.

Bibliography.-Workmen's Compensation Laws of the United States and Foreign Countries (Bulletin No. 126, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1914) contains a review and text of compensation legislation in United States, with summaries of all foreign laws. Consult also Eastman's Work Accidents and the Law (1910); Clark's The Law of the Employment of Labor (1911); Henderson's Industrial Insurance in the United States (1911); United States Library of Congress' Select List of References on Employers' Liability and Workmen's Compensation (1911); Andrews' Compensation for Occupational Diseases (Survey, 1913, vol. xxx., pp. 15-19); Schwedtman and Emery's Accident Prevention and Relief (1911); Social Insurance (American Labor Legislation Review, June, 1913); Workmen's Compensation Publicity Bureau's Digest of Workmen's Compensation and Insurance Laws in the United States (October, 1913); The Compensation Journal (published monthly at Lansing, Mich.)

Employment Bureaus. UNEMPLOYMENT.

See

Employment Service, U. S., a division of the U. S. Department of Labor, created in January, 1918, to deal with problems of employment and unemployment during the Great War, assembling and distributing the labor power of the country, and stabilizing conditions of ployment. While the Service was thus largely an outgrowth of the war, its real origin may be traced back to pre-war days.

em

The first Federal body to deal with problems of employment, and the only body of the kind in the United States upon its entrance into the war, was the Division of Information in the Bureau of Immigration. This was created Feb. 25, 1907, to promote the better distribution of aliens throughout the United States; and was transferred, in 1913, with enlarged scope, to the control of the newly organized Department of Labor (q. v.). To further its usefulness under the abnormal labor conditions created by the war, Congress, in 1917, appropriated $250,000 for its development to which the President added $875,000 from his national security and defence fund. With funds thus available, the service was separated from the Immigration Bureau in January, 1918, and was made a separate arm of the Department of Labor, while steps were immediately taken for its reorganization and development.

The organization of the Employment Service has undergone various modifications to

meet the changing conditions with which it has had to deal. Under act of March 4, 1913, eighteen headquarters, scattered throughout the United States, were established, each being the centre of a geographic zone and under the supervision of Immigration Inspectors. When the Secretary of Labor separated the Service from the Bureau of Immigration, field offices were opened in 48 states and the District of Columbia. The administration of these offices is carried on through a Federal director for each State, and general supervision of the work is exercised by a Central head known as the Division of Operations.

The Division of Operations is subdivided into numerous branches including the Bureau for the Replacement of Returning Soldiers and Sailors; the Professional and Special Section created to secure employment for civilians and the discharged personnel of the Army and Navy possessing special qualifications; the Clearance Section for the reallocation to peace-time industries of skilled and unskilled labor; the Mining Section for mine labor, and the Handicap Section for placing the aged and decrepit.

Other divisions and subdivisions of the Service include the Foreign Language Press Section, which aims to gather statistics on foreign-speaking peoples and to establish a direct contact between the service and

the masses; the Women's Division for the placement of women workers; the Public Service Reserve for the transferring of skilled workers from less to more essential industries; the Boys' Working Reserve for the mobilization and training of boys from 16 to 21 and their placement, especially on farms; and the Farm Service Division.

After the first few months of office opening and organization and until March, 1919, the Federal Employment Service consisted of approximately 900 public employment officers, including State and municipal offices. It had in addition to general offices, special offices for placing women, marine and dock workers, farm labor, etc. When failure of funds in March, 1919, compelled the curtailment of the placement organization of the Service, the field offices were reduced to a bare 56 but outside funds made it possible to maintain for the Federal Employment Service more than 425 offices which would otherwise have been closed. On July 1 the limited appropriation required further reduction of Federal-fi

naced employment offices, but outside support was again given pending action on the NolanKenyon bills introduced into the House of Representatives and Senate on May 31 and June 6, 1919, respectively, and providing for a permanent national employment service. In addition to the regular employment offices, the United States Employment Service, with the assistance of the welfare organizations, chambers of commerce, and other voluntary agencies, operated also 2,000 temporary Bureaus for Returning Soldiers and Sailors, through which all local efforts to help soldiers to jobs are concentrated and cleared.

In the eighteen months from January, 1918, when the United States Employment Service was organized, to June 30, 1919, 10,000 workers were placed on each working day at a cost of $1.34 per placement, including the building up and equipment of the service, which was free to both employers and employees. In this period 7,108,655 workers registered for employment, 6,466,294 were referred to positions and 4,955,159 were reported placed. Of those placed 20 per cent. were women, 80 per cent. men. But 23 per cent. represented common labor, the other 77 per cent. being skilled labor and other workers engaged in specific occupations.

During the same period employers applied for 12,079,514 workers of all kinds. The saving of fees to those directed to employment is estimated at not less than $10,000,000, while the saving of labor turnover and hours gained is estimated at many more millions.

During the period of the war, 3,432,997 registered for employment, 3,444,093 were referred to jobs and of them the returns show that 2,698,887 were placed. During the readjustment period, that is, from Dec. 1, 1918, to June 30, 1919, 3,432,997 workers registered for employment, 3,002,201 were referred to jobs, and 2,256,272 were reported placed, of whom 314,137 were soldiers and sailors. Of the men and women recruited to war-time industries 1,000,000 were relocated by the United States Employment Service.

Em'poli, town, Florence province, Italy, on the River Arno; 22 miles southwest of Florence by rail. The Collegiate Church (1093) contains some good paintings and sculpture. Straw goods, cotton, faience, and glass are manufactured. Pop. 22,000.

Empo'ria, city, Kansas, county seat of Lyon county, on the Neosho River, and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fé and

the Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Railroads; 60 miles southwest of Topeka. It is the seat of the College of Emporia, State Normal School, and the Western Musical Conservatory. Manufactures include carriages, lumber, flour, iron, and marble. Pop. (1900) 8,223 (1910) 9,058.

Emporia, town, Virginia, county seat of Greenesville county, on the Meherrin River, and the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern Railroads; 60 miles south of Richmond. Pop. (1900) 1,027; (1910) 2,018.

Empo'rium, town, Pennsylvania, county seat of Cameron county, on West Creek, and the Emporium and Rich Valley and the Pennsylvania Railroads; 121 miles southeast of Buffalo. ber, leather, iron, flour, and explosives are manufactured. Pop. (1900) 2,463; (1910) 2,916.

Lum

Empress of Ireland, liner of the Canadian Pacific Railroad Company, sunk as a result of a collision with the collier Storstad in the St. Lawrence River, May 29, 1914, with a loss of 1,024 lives. The liner, which was bound for Liverpool, left Quebec in the afternoon carrying 1,437 persons, of whom 955 were passengers. About 180 miles from its point of departure the collier Storstad was sighted, and signals were exchanged. The

vessels were then shut out of view of each other by fog, and the liner stopped with the customary whistle warnings; the Storstad, however, altered its course, and in the darkness struck the liner on the port side, cutting a great hole and tearing away her transverse bulkheads. Fourteen minutes later the liner went down. In a decision handed down by the Admiralty Court the collier was held responsible for the disaster.

Emp'son, or EMSON, SIR RICHARD (d. 1510), English statesman and lawyer, an agent of Henry VII., shared with Edmund Dudley (q. v.) a reputation for harshness and tyranny in the exaction of taxes and fines. For this he was impeached, with Dudley, on a charge of constructive treason, and was executed.

Empye'ma, a collection of pus in the space between the pleura covering the surface of the lung and that lining the chest cavity. The term is sometimes loosely used for any similar inflammatory condition. See PLEURISY.

Empyre'an, a word used by the old metaphysical natural philosophers to designate the highest region of light, where the purest and most rarefied elements of fire existed.

Empyreu'ma (Greek empyreuō, 'I kindle'), the burned smell and acrid taste which result when

vegetable or animal substances are decomposed by a strong heat. The cause of the smell and taste resides in an oil called empyreumatic.

Emsdet'ten, commune, Westphalia, Prussia; 15 miles northwest of Münster. It has varied manufactures. Pop. (1910) 10,

974.

Ems, or BAD EMS, a bathing place with warm mineral springs known to the Romans, and celebrated in Germany as early as the twelfth century. It is situated on the River Lahn, 10 miles southeast of Koblenz by rail. Pop. (1910) 6,777, a number more than doubled by patients. From Ems Bismarck issued the notorious Ems telegram (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR), July,

1870.

Ems, RUDOLF OF. See RuDOLF OF EMS.

Ems River, Germany, rises in the Teutoburger Forest, and flows north and west across the west end of the great North German plain, and issues into the Dollart, and so to the North Sea. Total length, about 200 miles. Over forty miles of its course, from Münster downward, were canalized between 1892 and 1899; and above Munster its usefulness was greatly increased by the construction of the DortmundWeser-Ems Canal.

Ems Telegram. See FRANCOGERMAN WAR.

Emu. See EMEU.

Emul'sin, or SYNAPTASE, is an enzyme, or unorganized ferment, occurring in almonds. It has the power of converting the glucoside amygdalin, present in bitter almonds, into glucose, prussic acid, and benzaldehyde. ALMONDS, Oil of.

See

Emul'sion is the term applied to those preparations in pharmacy in which oleaginous substances are suspended in water by means of gum, sugar, carrageen, yolk of egg, etc.

In pre

paring them it will be found that the bulk of the emulsifier must first be taken, while the oil should only be added little by little, rubbing together in a mortar, and taking care that it is completely absorbed or emulsified before further additions. Should too much be added, the effect is to throw out most of what has already been incorporated, and it is then almost impossible to remedy the error.

Emulsions of cod-liver oil, castor oil, and petroleum are prepared in this way. The first named is an excellent vehicle for the administration of the hypophosphites of lime, soda, and potash, or of eucalyptus oil. It is the best form for administering cod-liver oil to children. Castor oil is emulsified with mucilage of acacia; this emulsion is more

palatable than is the pure oil. Petroleum emulsion is prepared with mucilage of acacia, and is prescribed in combination with the hypophosphites of lime and soda. It is used in colds, chronic phthisis, etc.

Enamel, the name given to vitrified substances applied chiefly to the surface of metals. Enamelling is practiced (1) for purposes of utility; and (2) for producing artistic designs, and for ornamental purposes generally. The basis of all enamels is an easily fusible, colorless glass, to which the desired color and opacity are imparted by mixtures of metallic oxides. The mass, after being fused together and cooled, is reduced to a fine powder, washed, and applied to the surfaces to be covered. The whole is then exposed in a furnace till the enamel is melted, when it adheres firmly to the metal.

The art of enamelling has been practiced for many centuries in India, China, and Japan, France, Germany, and Italy, England and Ireland. The Greeks rarely used enamel in their goldsmith work, and what seems to be enamel in Egyptian art consists really of small pieces of glass and stones cut to the shapes of the spaces into which they are afterward fitted and then cemented. Byzantium (Constantinople), after the decline of the Roman power, was the centre of this industry, and widely influenced European art. Much work in enamel was done in England under Roman or AngloSaxon rule; but the Celtic enamellers of Ireland especially excelled, their designs being of great and characteristic beauty and faultless execution.

During the Middle Ages enamelling was one of the leading branches of the goldsmith's art, and ecclesiastical ornaments of all sorts were enriched with exquisite enamels. During the Renaissance the art revived in Italy, and in France the artists of Limoges produced many priceless works. Here, during the sixteenth century, large plaques or plates, covered with a ground of enamel, painted with subjects of a classical nature, represented what is known as the 'Limoges method.'

During the seventeenth century enamelling declined. In England miniature painting on small articles, such as snuff boxes and card cases, also bolder work

on

copper and brass, candlesticks, firedogs, and the like, was carried on till the end of the following century, when the art practically died out. Recent years have witnessed a great revival in Great Britain and France.

Distinguished with reference to the manner of execution. enamel work may be divided into four main classes: (1) Cloisonné, or enclosed, the method of the Byzantine school, in which the design is formed in a kind of metal case, and the several colors are separated by very delicate filigree gold bands. Plique à jour is similar (less the metal background), the effect resembling on a small scale a stained-glass window, the leads being reproduced by the wires of plique à jour. (2) Champlevé. In this process the ornamental design was cut in the metal (generally copper) to some depth; and wherever two colors met, a thin partition of the metal was left to prevent the colors running into each other by fusion when fired. (3) Translucent enamel, or Bassetaille, much used in later mediaval times, is a development of champlevé. The subject is carved in relief below the upper surface of the metal, the effect gained by the difference in the thickness, and consequent variation in the shades of the enamel, causing the carving to be clearly seen, and enhancing its beauty. (4) Surface-painted enamels may be divided into two stages. In the first the practice was to cover the metal plate with a coating of dark enamel for shadows, and to paint on this with white. This style soon degenerated, and gave place to the miniature style, in which the plate is covered with a white opaque enamel, and the colors are laid on this with a hair pencil, and fixed by firing. The paints are prepared by grinding up colored enamels with oil of spike, and when fused by the heat they become incorporated with the enamel of the ground.

The greater part of the artistic enamel work of the present day is of Japanese fabrication, and consists of cloisonné work on a copper basis. In China both cloisonné and painted enamels are made in characteristic Chinese designs. At Jaipur in India a limited quantity of enamel work on gold is executed in translucent colors which possess incomparable brilliancy. Enamel incrustrations are largely used in the jewelry, goldsmith, and silversmith trades of Europe and America.

Enamel may be bought in cakes, or powder, which is oftener used. To make powdered enamel, the dry materials should be intimately mixed, fused in a clay crucible, stirred with a fireclay rod, and poured into water. White watch-dial enamel, mixed with glass painters' colors, yields every required tint of opaque enamel by using an appropriate combination.

When practicable, metal articles should be enamelled on both sides to equalize the strain, especially in the case of thin plates. To obtain a smooth ground of enamel on the usual convex, oval copper plate of the miniature painter, powdered enamel is mixed to a paste with water, and applied uniformly with a bone spatula, the slightly turned-up edges of the plate aiding in keeping the enamel in position. The plate is then laid on a corrugated plate of refractory clay, and fired at a temperature just sufficient to make the enamel flow to an even surface.

Enameled Ware, or Agate Ware. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century many attempts have been made to cover iron with a vitreous surface, and several patents have been taken for such methods of enamelling. The chief difficulty arises from the tendency of the metal to oxidize before it reaches the temperature at which the enamel fuses, and to become brittle from the oxide combining with the silica of the enamel. The enamels used for coating iron consist of a mixture of silica and borax, with various basic substances, such as soda, oxide of tin, etc. The effect of heat on enamelled iron is to expand the metal more than the enamel, and cause the latter to peel off. Acids find their way through minute invisible pores, which exist in the best enamel; and when once they reach the iron, they rapidly spread between it and the enamel, and undermine and strip it off.

Enamelled culinary vessels are usually made of thin wrought iron. The surface is smeared over with a viscous solution of silicate of soda, after which powdered enamel is dusted on, and the article fired to melt the enamel.

For enamelled earthenware, see POTTERY; PORCELAIN.

Consult Paul Randau's Enamels and Enamelling; Dalpayrat's Limoges Enamels; Bowes' Japanese Enamels; Henry Cunynghame's Art Enamelling upon Metals; Day's Enamelling.

Enamel of teeth is the very hard, translucent white layer covering the working surface of the dentine or ivory of the teeth of most mammals. See TEETH.

Enara River. See TANA. Enarea, ā-nǎ'rē-a, hilly region, Abyssinia, southwest of Shoa. It grows coffee, and trades in coffee and ivory. The capital is Saka or Sakka, 150 miles southwest of Adis Abeba. Pop. 40,000.

Enare Lake, a-nä'rā (also spelt INARA, ENARI, INDIAGHER), large fresh-water basin of Russian Lapland, at the northern extremity of the province of Uleaborg, with an area of 600 square miles.

The surface of the lake is dotted with many small islands.

Encalada, MANUEL BLANCO (1790-1876), was born in Buenos Ayres, and joined the Chilean revolutionary party, and served both in the artillery and in the navy. He became rear-admiral in 1819, and major-general of infantry in 1820; and in 1825 he was head of the army of Chile. He was for two months president of the republic in 1826; governor of Valparaiso in 1847-52; and minister to France in 1853-58. See CAMP.

Encampment.

Encaustic, a term used to describe a picture painted by means of heated wax. At the close of the eighteenth century experi ments were made by Emma J. Greenland to ascertain the ancient methods; but the process, in which gum mastic and wax were the principal vehicles used, produced neither so brilliant a tint nor so durable a texture as oil painting. The term encaustic is also used in the art of making tiles, plain or decorated, for pavements of buildings. The clay, being prepared, is pressed down into steel moulds of the required size, and with such weight that three inches' depth of powder forms a tile but one inch thick. Heating, firing, and glazing complete the process. See MURAL DECORATION; TILE.

Enceinte, an-sant' (French), in fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a fortified place. See FORTIFICATION.

Enceph'alar'tos, a genus of tropical and subtropical plants belonging to the Cycadaceæ. They are mostly natives of Africa, and require to be grown under glass. They bear handsome pinnate, terminal evergreen leaves, often of considerable length, and are propagated by means of seed. E. Caffer is the source of the so-called Kafir bread, which is prepared from its pith.

Enceph'alocele, a tumor of the head which bulges through a suture of the skull. It is a protrusion of brain substance covered by the normal brain mem branes and by the skin. It is congenital, and seems to be produced by an excess of cerebrospinal fluid in the internal cavities of the brain. It must be distinguished from a meningocele, in which the fluid external to the brain causes protrusion of the membranes, the brain tissue itself not being involved. An encephalocele has a doughy feeling, often pulsates, is always in the line of a suture, and is not translucent, as is a meningocele. When pressed it often causes convulsions, but cannot be returned to the skull cavity. Operation upon it is often useless and dangerous, and it is best treated by the application of