of latitude, and there is great humidity, the western part of the country being warmer and more humid than the eastern part, which is sheltered from warm westerly winds by the central ridge. The annual rainfall is about 25 inches where the hills do not intervene; in Cornwall and Devon and in the Pennine Range it reaches 40 inches and more; in the Lake District and Wales it exceeds 60 inches.

The British Fauna and Flora closely resemble those of other places of the same latitude but fewer species are met with than on the continent.

Geology.-The geology of England is of peculiar importance. The fossiliferous strata having been first systematically studied and expounded here, British geologists have given to the world the names whereby most of the larger divisions and subdivisions of these strata are known. Nearly all of the recognized 'systems' occur in Britain. Indeed, the only system not found in Britain is the Miocene -the beds formerly classed as of this age being now included in the Oligocene. Nearly all the formations yield minerals of economic value.

It may be said in general, that the mountainous regions of the north and west, are formed of the oldest rocks, and that as we move southeastwards we gradually pass over new strata, until, in the east of England, we come to the uppermost divisions of the Tertiary.

The oldest fossiliferous strata in Britain belong to the Cambrian System, and are well developed in Wales and Shropshire, attaining a thickness of more than 30,000 feet. The Carboniferous System may be said to occupy a broad tract extending from the Bristol Channel to the base of the Cheviots.

Mining.-England is rich in minerals, of which coal and iron are by far the most important. It is the largest coal exporting country in the world and its abundant fuel supply has been a great factor in its immense manufacturing development. The total exposed area of coal lands in England and Wales is estimated at 2,786 square miles, the principal coal fields being the Newcastle Basin, in the counties of Northumberland and Durham; the Cumberland, covering the northern and western portion of Cumberland; the Lancashire, Cheshire, and Flintshire; the Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire; the Midland, including the fields of Denbighshire, North and South Staffordshire, Warwickshire,

Leicestershire, and Shropshire; the South Wales Basin, which is the chief source of anthracite and steam coal for the British navy and mercantile marine; and the Southern Coal Basin, including the Bristol and SomersetIshire, Forest of Dean, and Kent fields. Iron is found in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and in Cumberland, Lancashire, Lincoln, Northampton, Leicester, and South Staffordshire; tin in Cornwall and Devon; lead and silver in Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Shropshire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Cardigan, Glamorgan, and the Isle of Man; zinc in Cardigan, Denbighshire, Flint, and the Isle of

ment.

The soil is fertile and about 80 per cent. of it is agriculturally productive. The acreage and production of the principal crops for 1930 were estimated as follows: oats, 2,641,000 acres, 13,979,000 quarters; wheat, 1,400,000 acres, 5,177,000 quarters; barley, 1,127,000 acres, 4,391,000 quarters; hay, 7,277,000 acres, 8,823,000 tons; turnips, 1,044,000 acres, 13,753,000 tons; potatoes, 548,000 acres, 3,603,000 tons.

Cattle and sheep raising and dairying are carried on in the central and southern parts of England. Devonshire is famous for its butter and cream, and the South Downs for mutton.

Man; salt in Cheshire and Staffordshire.

The total mineral production of Great Britain (which includes Scotland and the Isle of Man), in 1929, was valued at the mines at about $983,925,000. The largest items were: coal. $866,165,000; iron ore, $18.230,000; limestone, $16.925.000; clay and shale, $7,130,000; oil shale, $2,490,000.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries. In agriculture England has been reckoned a backward country. but this is due rather to the higher relative advantages which it possesses for the prosecution of manufacture, as compared with other countries, than to positive unsuitability for agricultural develop

Woods and plantations cover over 3,000,000 acres, but the tracts of land known as forests, such as the Forests of Wrye and Dean in Wales, the Forest of Arden and Charnwood Forest in Central England, Epping Forest in the southwest, planted as a hunting ground by William the Conqueror, are merely remnants of what were once extensive woodlands.

Large quantities of fish are taken in the waters surrounding England. In 1930, 783.881 tons of fish, excluding shell fish, were landed in England and Wales, valued at $72,605,160. The chief varieties are herring, haddock, cod, hake, and sole.

Manufactures.-Her insular position, numerous large ports,

the nearness of all her cities to the sea, and her abundant supply of coal and iron have united to make England one of the great workshops of the world. Up to the latter part of the eighteenth century large quantities of raw material were exported, manufacturing was not carried on to any great extent, and the industrial centres were confined to the southern and eastern parts. With the development of the coal industry, however, and the resultant use of machinery and steam-power, manufacturing increased enormously and the northern towns in whose vicinity much of the coal is found, far outstripped their southern neighbors. Great manufacturing cities have grown up on the coal fields; hardware is made in the iron districts, and chemical industries are carried on near the salt deposits. Cotton is made in Lancashire; wool in West Riding; potteries are found in Staffordshire; metal industries in Middlesbrough, South Durham, South Wales, and South Staffordshire; shipbuilding is done on the Tyne; Sheffield is famous for cutlery and Swansea for tin plate. Glass, linen, soap, all kinds of machinery, jewelry, and leather goods are also manufactured. textile industry may be said to be the most important.

The

Commerce. The position England occupies between North America and Northwest Europe and close to the chief line of traffic between this latter district and Australia, India, South and West Africa, guarantees her a large share in the world's traffic. For external communication the facilities are abundant. Not only is the coast line long, but it is marked by numerous and easily accessible harbors, some purely natural, and some improved by artificial harbor works. The leading ports are London, which, with the possible exception of New York City, is the greatest trade centre of the world. Liverpool, Cardiff, Hull, Newcastle. Bristol, Dover, Harwich, and Southampton.

Trade statistics are for the United Kingdom as a whole. In 1930 the value of imports was $5.224.200,000, exports $2.852,765,000 and re-exports $434,910.000, a total of $8.511,875,000. The chief articles of import and their value were food, etc., $2,377,760.000; raw materials, $1,254,040,000; manufactured articles, $1,537,495.000. The principal exports were foods, etc., $241,260,000; raw materials. $319.075,000; manufactured articles $2,198,755.000. The reexports were chiefly foods, etc.,

$119.045.000; raw materials, $191,880.000; manufactured articles, $120,810,000.

Great Britain took from the United States in 1930 goods valued at $678,108,376 and exports to that country totalled $209,982,700. Other principal purchasers of British goods were British India, $214,720,000; Irish Free State, $180,390,000; Australia, $158,305,000; Canada, $144,520,000; Union of South Africa, $132.320,000; France, $148,460,000; Germany, $134,150,000; Argentine Republic. $126,350,000.

The merchant marine of Great Britain in 1931 consisted of 746 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 252,683 gross tons, 862 motor ships of 2,757,946 gross tons and 9.078 steam vessels of 20,369,370 gross tons. In 1930, 46,252,000 tons of foreign shipping and 83,407.000 tons of British shipping entered and cleared British ports. The largest port is London, into which entered 28,037 vessels of all classes, in 1930, with a tonnage of 29,233,000. Into Liverpool, in 1930, there entered 15,832 vessels of all classes with a tonnage of 16,932. In 1930, 2,995.000 tons of United States ships entered British ports with cargoes. Since April 1, 1923, trade between foreign ports and those of the Irish Free State has not been included in the navigation returns of the United Kingdom.

Communications.-The 120 small railways of Great Britain were regrouped in 1921 into four large systems which

ensures

greater efficiency and economy in operation. The London and North Eastern Railway, with a mileage of 6.464 has a capital of nearly 2,000 million dollars; the Southern Railway. 2,129 miles, has a capital of 720 million dollars; the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, 7,464 miles, has a capital of 2,000 million dollars, and the Great Western Railway, 3,765 miles, has a capital of 730 million dollars. There are many miles of navigable riverways and an extensive system of canals covering 3,825 milesthe Manchester Ship Canal (q. v.) being of special importance. Roads are excellent, and there are 2,323 miles of tramways and light railways. The number of telegraph offices in 1931 was 12,934 telephone exchanges numbered 13,115, with 758,574 miles of wire. The figures given above include Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Civil aviation is directed by the Air Ministry who have developed at Croydon one of the finest airports in the world at a cost of $1,300,000. Daily serv

ices connect London with Paris, Basle, Zurich, Brussels, and Cologne. A service to Manchester and Liverpool operates three times weekly. Mail and passenger planes leave London weekly for Karachi and Delhi (5,500 miles in 7 or 8 days), also for Cape Town via Nairobi, Kenya Colony, a distance of 5,600 miles, in 8 days.

Population.-England is densely populated, with nearly 685 inhabitants to the square mile. The civil population of England and Wales in 1931 was 39,947,931 about 80 per cent. of whom live in the towns and urban districts. The first census was taken in 1801. The results of each succeeding census are shown in the following table:

The principal cities are Greater London with (in 1931) 8,202,818 inhabitants; Birmingham, 1.002,413; Liverpool, 855,539; Manchester, 766,333; Sheffield, 511.742; Bristol, 396,918; Hull, 513.666; Bradford, 298,041; Newcastle-on-Tyne. 283,145; Stoke-on-Trent, 276,619; and Nottingham, 268,801. Emigration has been of considerable assistance as a means of reducing the excess population of the country and up to October, 1928, the Empire Settlement Act of 1922 had assisted 256,232 persons to proceed to less populous parts of the Empire, but this movement has now ceased because of unemployment in the Dominions. The birth rate for 1931 was 15.8 per 1,000, the lowest on record.

Religion.-The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal, but civil disabilities on account of religion do not attach to any class of British subjects. There were, in 1929. in England and Wales, 16,377 churches and chapels belonging to the Established Church; while full members numbered 2.294,000, and ministers in charge about 14,000. There are 3 archbishops, 46 bishops. 29 suffragan assistant bishops, 32 deans, and 110 archdeacons. The total number of communicants of Free

or Nonconformist Churches (1929) was 2,054,000, and the total number of their ministers in charge 11,285. Of these, the Wesleyan Methodists had 547,628 communicants, and 2,810 ministers; the Congregationalists, 494,199 communicants, 2,883 ministers; the Baptists, 414,000 communicants, 1,925 ministers; the Primitive Methodists, 225,861 communicants, 1,100 ministers. Roman Catholics number about 2,150,000, and have 4 archbishops, 13 bishops, and 3,950 clergy. The Unitarians have about 350 places of worship, and the Jews number about 300,000 with 200 synagogues.

In May, 1914, after a number of years of agitation an act disestablishing the church in Wales was passed, and actual disestablishment, postponed because of the World War, took place March 31, 1920. (See DISESTABLISHMENT).

Education. -Elementary, secondary, and technical education is under the control of the Board of Education. By the Fisher Education Act (1918) education is free and compulsory between the ages of 5 and 14 without exemption, and attendance at non-vocational continuation schools was compulsory from 14 to 16 until 1925 and from 14 to 18 after that date, such attendance being for all day if the children are not at work and eight hours a week if at work. The act provides also for regulation of employment of children, for free medical inspection and treatment of pupils, and for special schools for physically defective children. The schoolleaving age was raised to 15, April 1, 1931.

Higher education is provided for by the Universities at Oxford (q.v.); with 22 colleges and 3 private halls; Cambridge (q.v.) with 17 colleges and 1 hall; Durham; London; Victoria at Manchester; Birmingham; Leeds; Liverpool; Reading; Sheffield; Bristol; and the University of Wales; with special agricultural colleges at Carlisle, Cirencester, Newport, Glasgow, Kingston-onSoar, Uckfield, Wye, and Ripley. At most of the Universities women are admitted on equal terms with men, but there are several colleges exclusively for women-as Bedford, Newnham, Girton, Somerville, St. Hugh's, St. Hilda's, Royal Holloway, and Westfield. Women were first admitted to Oxford University in 1920.

See EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS, NATIONAL.

Army.-The British standing army dates from 1645. When the

Army of the Commonwealth was disbanded on the restoration of Charles 11., the Duke of York, afterwards James 11., requested permission to retain the services of General Monk's Troop of Horse and Regiment of Foot as a protection against rioting. The request was granted, and this regiment became the famous Coldstream Guards. Other regiments were soon added, as the Life Guards, the Horse Guards and the Grenadier Guards, and the standing army thus established has continued to the present day.

In 1907 the organization was completely remodelled. From that time up to the period of the World War (1914-19), the military forces consisted of the Regular Army and the Territorial Army with voluntary service; the Regulars serving for the most part in India and other overseas territory, and the Territorials forming the home defence. The land forces of Great Britain consist of the Regular Army, the Territorial Army and the Reserve Forces. The Regular Army consists of 148,800 men with an additional 60,000 in India. The Territorials number 183,500, the whole army amounting to 651,294 men including all reserves. The army is administered by an Army Council consisting of the Secretary of State for War and other high officials.

Navy. The British Navy is a permanent establishment administered by the Board of Admiralty, whose duties are of two classes, operation and maintenance; the former directed by the First Sea Lord and the Chief of the Naval Staff, the assistant Chief of the Naval Staff. the Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff and the Deputy First Sea Lord; and the latter by the Second Sea Lord, the Third Sea Lord, the Fourth Sea Lord, the Civil Lord, the Controller, and the Second Civil Lord. The fleet in 1931 consisted of 18 battleships and battle cruisers, 53 cruisers and light cruisers, 16 flotilla leaders and 59 submarines, and a number of monitors, mine-sweepers and other auxiliary vessels. The Three-Power Agreement between Great Britain, the United States, and Japan, incorporated in the London Naval Treaty of 1931, permits Great Britain to maintain 15 capital ships: 15 8" gun cruisers with a tonnage of 146,000; 192,200 tons of 6" gun cruisers: 150,000 tons of destroyers and 52,700 tons of submarines. The personnel in 1931 was 94,000. and the expenditure in the budget of 1931-32 was $258,075,000.

Air Force.-During 1912 the

naval wing of the Royal Flying Corps was founded, and in 1918 an Air Ministry was formed with functions similar to those of the Army and Navy. In April, 1918, the military and naval wings were united to form the Royal Air Force. This consists of the Royal Air Force, the Air Force Reserve, the Air Force Special Reserve, the Auxiliary Air Force, and the Territorial Air Force. In 1930-31 it comprised 32,000 members exclusive of those in India, and 71 squadrons of 12 aeroplanes each. During 1922 the Air Ministry took control of Iraq, Palestine and Transjordania and of Aden in 1931. The chief educational establishments of the Air Force are the Cadet College at Cranwell, and the Staff College at Andover. Government.-Imperial and Central Government.-The supreme legislative power is vested in Parliament, consisting of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The total number of peers on the roll at the beginning of the session in 1931 was 740. Of these 610 are peers of the United Kingdom, 16 representative peers of Scotland, 28 representative peers of Ireland, 2 archbishops, and 24 bishops. Members of the House of Commons number 615, representing county, borough, and university constituencies in the three divisions of the United Kingdom. In 1918 the franchise was revised and extended, about two million male voters and six million women being enfranchised and seats in the House of Commons being redistributed on the basis of one to every 70,000 population. An Act of 1928 extended the women's franchise to all those over 21, adding 1,500,000 new voters. Parliament is summoned by writ of the sovereign issued out of chancery_by advice of the Privy Council. The annual session usually extends from October until July. Dissolution of Parliament may occur by will of the sovereign, by proclamation, or by lapse of time, five years. The executive power is vested nominally in the Crown, but practically is exercised by the Cabinet of 20 members, whose tenure depends on the House of Commons. (See CABINET).

Local Government.- -The Crown is represented in each county by a Lord Lieutenant. A sheriff represents the executive of the Crown; an under-sheriff, clerk of the peace, coroners and other officers are appointed by the county councils. England and Wales are divided into 62 administrative counties, each with an elected council which has jur