own peculiar duties and actions, prescribed by custom, which reoccur on the seventh day following. It will be observed that the amalgamation of the new arts, ceremonies, practices, etc., takes place rather automatically, with but little thought given to the fact that the new is being made over. It is characteristic of the greater part of cultural life that it is carried on unconsciously. We know that we speak a particular language, but are little aware of its grammar, the framework, while we are using it. We can in fact speak English quite correctly without knowing anything of its grammar. Still less are we aware that the number of sounds we use is absolutely fixed and does not correspond to the letters of the alphabet. Grammar and pronunciation rise into consciousness only when we make a slip or are teaching a child. This is true, but to a lesser degree, of all phases of culture. Most of us are unaware, in fact, that we have a culture, a set of habits learned from others in our society, because we think our actions peculiarly our own. really only a small part of our everyday behavior is idiosyncratic; most of it is culturally determined. Yet Inventions, crafts, and industries are more in consciousness than social behavior, ethical judgments, religious and artistic emotions, because the former have tangible, physical existence. Hence they are more easily subject to accumulation and improvement. It is undoubtedly for this reason that more progress has been made in the development of our machines, science, medical methods, and the like, than in our social relations and our ethics. The unconscious nature of much of culture is responsible to a profound degree for the character of its development. There is a tendency to amalgamate automatically things of quite distinct origin, and to reinterpret the old in terms of the new without scrutiny. A common observation in the primitive field is that while natives think of their myths as having been fixed from the beginning of time, it is easily demonstrated that they are in reality quite fluid. There is a common tribal stock of incidents on which the narrator freely and unthinkingly draws to construct his tale. He recalls the framework but inserts any incident which seems appropriate to the story. Considerable analysis of such habits has been made by ethnologists. Another illustration is found in the tendency of people to see their own social order reflected in the world about them. Certain Californian tribes are divided into two intermarrying bodies: they unthinkingly divide all animals, plants, and heavenly bodies into two groups related in an esoteric way to their own. (Such a relationship is usually described as totemic.) The Old Testament similarly ascribes to Heaven a kingly organization and quite material features reflecting the life of the ancient Hebrews, which was probably far from a conscious projection. Unconscious reinterpretation of culture brings it about that old habits persist but are given new values. Ethical ideals are brought into closer harmony with current thought, although there may be no change in the practices that are so rationalized. Many modern churchgoers would hold that their devotional ritual has only symbolic value, forgetting that nevertheless the ancient ritual persists. They incline to stress the high ethical aims of religion and gloss over the emotional and dramatic appeal which were earlier among the primary reasons for church activities. Secondary reinterpretation, of which rationalization is only one kind, occurs quite as frequently in primitive cultures. Thus there are native myths explaining geographic features, the reasons for human behavior, etc., which on their face appear to have been fabricated solely for this purpose. Ethnologists have abundantly demonstrated that the identical myths occur in other tribes without the explanatory features, and that there is no reason to believe that the explanatory forms are the older. Hence the conclusion that the myths have been reinterpreted to serve the explanatory purpose. Reinterpretation, unconscious or otherwise, tends to preserve the outward form of a culture intact although its spirit may suffer considerable transformation. Another potent factor toward conservatism is the strong emotional reaction against change. Certain actions have become habitual with a people, and like all habits tend to be followed unthinkingly. A break with the conventional arouses surprise, emotion, and resistance. The more automatically the culture habit had been followed, the stronger the emotional reaction on its breach and the greater the resistance to change. Religion, patriotism, etiquette, propriety toward the dead, are some of the spheres in which this is especially true. It is astonishing how strong is our reaction against the taste of unfamiliar foods; all out of keeping with the biological necessity of survival value. It is notorious how in time of stress, as in war, any action contrary to that of the mob, no matter how well founded in reason, arouses a storm of passion. While in civilized nations there are undoubtedly more occasions when reason is given sway, it cannot be maintained that emotional reaction and resistance is any less than in primitive communities. Mental patterns that characterize the culture of each people are thus seen to be the result of an historic growth. The factors involved are multiform. In answer to the question as to how far men think and act alike, we can only hold that the basic mental operations and behavior are common to the whole of mankind, but the specific mode of thought is determined by the prevailing patterns, and these are the result of a complex culture history. Consult Boas' Mind of Primitive Man (1911); Boas and others' Anthropology in North America (1915); Elliot Smith's Migrations of Early Culture (1915); Sapir's Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture (1916); Lowie's Culture and Ethnology (1918); Radcliffe-Brown's The Andaman Islanders (1922); Kroeber's Anthropology (1923); Perry's The Children of the Sun (1923); Wissler's Man and Culture (1923); Malinowski's Crime and Custom in Primitive Society (1926); Marett's The Diffusion of Culture (1927); Smith and others' Culture: the Diffusion Controversy (1927); Dixon's The Building of Cultures (1928). Eth'yl, an alkyl, or organic radical, having the formula C2Hs, which, while not existing by itself, forms part of many compounds, such as common alcohol, in which it is united to OH, etc. Ethylamine, eth-il-am'in. If the hydrogen atoms of ammonia are replaced in turn by ethyl groups, mon-ethylamine (NH:C:Hs), di-ethylamine (NH(C2Hs)2), and tri-ethylamine (N(CH)) result. This replacement can be carried out by heating ethyl iodide with an alcoholic solution of ammonia, and the iodides of the above three compounds are obtained. Distillation with caustic soda sets free the ethylamines; but they are not easily separated from each other, and if wanted pure, are better prepared by other methods. The ethylamines are very volatile, and have a strong ammoniacal and fishy smell. They are alkaline, like ammonia, and burn with a luminous flame. Ethyl Chloride (CH.CI) is obtained by passing hydrogen chloride gas into alcohol containing a small quantity of zinc chloride, and heating. The product requires to be condensed in a receiver surrounded by a freezing mixture, and is a very volatile (b.p. 12.5° c.). somewhat sweet-smelling liquid. It burns with a green-edged flame. Ethylene (CH), eth'il-en, or 'olefiant gas,' is a hydro-carbon gas made by heating common alcohol with an excess of sulphuric acid. Ethyl hydrogen sulphate is first formed and then breaks up into ethylene and sulphuric acid. Ethylene is a colorless gas with a slight ethereal contents, a bag or bundle thus labelled passing unchallenged. From this it came to mean the conventional rules of personal behavior observed in the intercourse of polite society, as also the unwritten code of honor by which members of certain professions (especially the medical and legal) are prohibited from doing certain things deemed likely to injure the interests of their brethren, or to lower the dignity of the profession. Etive, ět'iv, river and sealoch, Scotland, on the west coast of Argyllshire. The river is 15 miles long, and falls into the head of the loch; it contains salmon and trout. The loch is exceptionally fertile, well cultivated, and densely inhabited; but above 7,000 feet all is black and barren. An observatory has been built at the foot of the capping cone of ashes, some 1,100 feet from the summit. Eruptions take place on an average after intervals of four or five years. The ancients attributed the mountain's outbreaks to the giant Enceladus, or Typhoeus, and held it sacred to Hephaestus. Ancient legend also made it the scene of the myths of Acis and Galatea, Demeter and Persephone, Polyphemus and the Cyclopes. Destructive outbreaks occurred in 1169, 1669, 1693, 1792, 1879, 1886, and 1911. The odor. It is insoluble in water, and burns with a very luminous flame, forming carbon dioxide and water. It unites directly with an equal volume of chlorine to form 'Dutch liquid,' or ethylene chloride, and is the component of ordinary coal gas, to which the luminosity of the latter is largely due. Ethyl Ether. See ETHER. Etiology, e-ti-ol'ō-ji, or TIOLOGY, theory of causation-e.g. in medicine the etiology of a disease is the theory of the causes by which it is induced. For the theory of causation in general, see CAUSE. Etiquette, et'i-ket, in former times 'etiquette' signified the ticket tied to the necks of bags or affixed to bundles to denote their near Oban and merges in the Firth of Lorne at Dunstaffnage Castle. Ardchattan Priory (1281) is a fine and interesting ruin on the north shore. Around its upper end the scenery is mountainous and picturesque. Et'na, or ETNA, or MONTE GIBELLO, a volcanic mountain close to the eastern coast of Sicily. It is an almost circular, flattened cone, measuring about 100 miles in circumference at the base, and rising to an altitude of 10,750 feet. The crater wall has been broken down on the east side only, leaving a chasmValle del Bove-2,000 to 4,000 feet deep. The mountain is dotted over with large secondary cones. Its lower slopes, especially towards the southeast, are latest was that of 1928, when the destruction amounted to about $10,000,000. The native Sicilians call the mountain 'Mongibello.' The ascent is usually made from Nicolosi, or Catania, on the southeast. Etna, borough, Pennsylvania, in Allegheny County, on the Allegheny River, and on the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania Railroads; opposite Pittsburgh. It is an industrial town and has steel mills, blast furnaces and iron works. Pop. (1910) 5,830; (1920) 6,341. Eton, e'tun, town, England, in Buckinghamshire, on the Thames opposite Windsor. It is noteworthy as the seat of Eton College. Pop. (1921) 3,301. Eton College, one of the most famous educational establishments in England, was founded in 1440 by Henry vi. The original foundation has been greatly modified under the Public Schools Act, 1868. It now consists of a provost and 10 fellows, who constitute the 'governing body,' 2 chaplains or conducts, and 70 king's scholars or collegers. The main portion of the establishment, numbering over 900, consists of the oppidans, students who live in houses held by the masters, and whose friends pay liberally for their education. The tuition is the same for them as for the collegers, who live within the walls of the establishment. The teaching comprises classical and modern subjects and the faculty is a large one. The total number of pupils exceeds 1000. The college buildings are of various dates and are very beautiful; they comprise the old chapel, the new chapel, the library, apartments for the provost and fellows, laboratories, dormitories, observatory and museum. Among famous Etonians have been Bolingbroke, Boyle, Canning, Chatham, Derby, Fielding, Fox, Gladstone, Gray, Hallam, Kinglake, Lyttelton, Milman, Porson, Praed, Pusey, Shelley, the Walpoles, Wellesley, and Wellington. The 'Montem,' or triennial procession to Salt Hill (ad montem), was celebrated last in 1844. Consult Maxwell Lyte's History of Eton College. Etruria, e-troo'ri-a, called also Tuscia by the Romans, and Tyrrhenia or Tyrsenia by the Greeks, an ancient country in Central Italy. It was bounded on the east and south by the river Tiber, on the west by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north and northwest by the Apennines and the river Macra. The origin and racial character of the Etruscan people, who called themselves Rasena, are very uncertain. The ancients believed that they were immigrants from Lydia; modern writers have held that they were a Rhætian race from the Alps. The view of some authorities is that they were of the same stock as the primitive inhabitants of Greece, the Ægean Islands, and indeed most of the Mediterranean coasts which they call Pelasgian. The remains of their art and buildings confirm this view. Though a number of Etruscan inscriptions have been discovered, they have never been deciphered. It is, however, certain that up to about 500 B.C. the Etruscans formed the most powerful state in Italy, holding not only Etruria, but also the valley of the Po. From the latter they were expelled by the Gauls, who destroyed Melpum, one of their chief cities, probably in the 6th or 5th century B.C. At one time they also controlled Latium and Campania as far as Vesuvius. In Etruria proper there was a league of twelve cities-probably Crotona, Arretium, Clusium, Perusia, Volaterræ, Vetulonia, Rusellæ, Volsinii, Tarquinii, Falerii, Veii, and Cære. These cities were governed by aristocracies, formed from the members of a noble class called the Lucumones. The Etruscans were a highly artistic people, as their monuments testify. It is beyond doubt that the rule of the Tarquins at Rome was really a conquest of Rome by the Etrurians. But about 500 B.C. their power declined, owing to the pressure of the Gauls on the north, the rivalry of Carthage and the Sicilian Greeks at sea-in 474 Hiero of Syracuse defeated them in a great sea-battle and the growth of the power of Rome. Many wars were waged between the Etruscans and the Romans, the first great success of Rome being the destruction of Veii in 396 B.C. The Etruscans were finally subdued in 282, and received the Roman franchise in 90 B.C., after which they became merged in the Roman nation, though they influenced the Romans largely in matters of religious, political, and social life. Etruria now forms the greater part of Tuscany and part of Umbria. Consult Ridgeway's Early Age of Greece; Dennis' Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria; Pauli's Corpus Inscrip tionum Etruscarum. Etsch, river, Austria. See ADIGE. Etterbeek, et'er-bāk, a suburb of Brussels, Belgium. Ettmüller, et'mül-er, ERNEST MORITZ LUDWIG (1802-77), German philologist, was born in Gersdorf, Saxony. In 1833 he was appointed master of German literature at Zürich Gymnasium, becoming professor in the university there in 1863. His many works include Lexicon AngloSaxonicum (1851); Handbuch der Deutschen Literaturgeschichte (1847); Altnordischer Sagenschatz (1870). He also produced editions of old German and Scandinavian texts, and translated the Lieder der Edda von den Nibelungen in 1837, and published an excellent Norse reading-book. Ett'rick, a river and district, Scotland, in Selkirkshire. The river rises 5 miles northeast of Moffat and flows northeasterly for about 30 miles till it reaches the Tweed, 22 miles below Selkirk. Its chief tributary is the Yarrow. Near the source of the river is the village of Ettrick, in the churchyard of which are buried Boston (1676-1732), the author of The Fourfold State, and Hogg (1770-1835), the 'Ettrick Shepherd.' The forest district formerly included all Selkirkshire and parts of Peebles and Edinburgh. Now it is treeless, and forms sheep-walks. It was a favorite hunting-ground of the Scottish kings until the time of James v. Etty, WILLIAM (1787-1849), English painter, was born in York, the son of a miller and spice-maker. For seven years he was apprenticed to a printer in Hull, working at art in his spare time. In the beginning of 1806 he removed to London, where in 1807 he became a student in the Royal Academy schools; and for a year he was a pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence. In 1811 his Sappho was hung in the Royal Institution, and his Telemachus rescuing Antiope found a place on the walls of the Royal Academy. In 1820 he produced Pandora, followed by The Coral-finders (1820) and Cleopatra's Arrival in Cilicia (1821). In 1816 and 1822 he visited Italy, and in 1824 he was elected A.R.A. Soon after he began a series of large subjectsWoman pleading for the Vanquished (1825), three scenes from the history of Judith (1827-31). and Benaiah (1829). In 1828 he attained full academic honors. Among his other chief works are Youth at the Prow and Pleasure at the Helm (1832), in the National Gallery, London; The Sirens (1837), in the Manchester Institution; and three subjects from the career of Joan of Arc. As a colorist Etty ranks high. His painting of flesh is distinguished by delicacy, and refinement, and the glowing, blending hues of his draperies and of his landscape backgrounds are in admirable harmony with his figures. Etymologicum Magnum, eti-mo-loj'i-kum mag'num, a Byzantine Greek lexicon, the authorship of which is unknown. Dr. Gaisford bestowed immense labor on an edition which he published at Oxford in 1848. Etymology, et-i-mol'ō-ji, that branch of science which traces the history of the meanings and forms of words-i.e. which treats of word-derivations in the widest sense. It traces the origin and development of the pronunciation, spelling, and signification of individual words. Hypotheses regarding the ancestry of any particular word must not disregard the established laws of sound-change. There must be a known channel of communication through which the borrowed word may be assumed to have come. It should be remembered that words are often compounded of primitive elements which are not independently used; etymologists should be acquainted with the roots, prefixes, and suffixes of the language with which they have to deal. In another direction, etymology endeavors to arrange the meanings of each word genealogically, and to find out, if possible, what the first or primary meaning was. An element of conjecture cannot always be excluded from this branch of the inquiry, but it should always be controlled by known analogies and by the laws of psychological probability. Popular etymology is given principally to speculation regarding the original meaning of placenames. It so happens that these words, as a class, present quite exceptional difficulties to the etymologist. Their actual modern forms have generally no recognizable meaning. In England a large proportion of the names are not of English origin, but this discrepancy is not peculiar to that country. Place-names, besides, are specially liable to great changes in form (popularly called 'corruption'). It cannot be too often repeated that the oldest ascertainable form of the name is invariably to be taken as the starting-point of an explanation. The history of the district or country, and perhaps one of the elements of the name, may serve to suggest the language from which the word is derived. Obscure resemblances are made clear by a knowledge of the laws of phonetic change. Place-names are generally a designation of some prominent feature in the locality; its survival, or some record of its former existence, is frequently evidence of the soundness of etymology. Popular etymologies show a marked tendency to explain place-names by incidents; the stories upon which they are based are generally spun out of chance resemblances between the name and a suggestive catchword. Consult Skeat's Principles of English Etymology (2 vols.), and Primer of English Etymology, restricted to the history of forms, R. C. Trench's On the Study of Words. Besides the larger standard dictionaries, Skeat's Concise Etymological Dictionary is specially to be recommended. an Etzel. See ATTILA. Eua, ä-oo'ä, or Eoa, one of the islands of the Tonga group. Eubœa, u-bē'a, EGRIPOS, or NEGROPONTE (Ital. 'black bridge'), the largest island of Greece in the Egean Sea, separated from the mainland by the Euripos, the northern part of which is known as the Atalante Channel, the southern part as the Egripos Channel and the Gulf of Petalioi. The island, which is 115 miles long, with a maximum breadth of 33 miles, is generally mountainous (highest peaks, St. Elias, 4,840 feet, and Delphi, 5,725 feet), but has many fertile valleys. Chalcis is the chief town and port of the northern division, and Karystos of the southern. In classical times Eretria rivalled Chalcis as a commercial city. Together with the Northern Sporades. Eubœa forms a department of Greece. Pop. (1927) 143,052. During most of the 5th century B.C. the island belonged to Athens. Its subjugation by Philip of Macedon (338 B.C.), its possession by the Venetians (1351), its conquest by the Turks (1470), its desperate but unsuccessful attempts to regain its independence (1688), and its incorporation (1830) in the kingdom of Greece are the chief landmarks in its history. Eubulus, u-bu'lus, the leading statesman at Athens about 350 B.C. He was chancellor of the Theoric Fund (i.e. chief minister of finance) from 354 to 350, and probably from 350 to 346 B.C. He was an able financier, and, as a statesman, a supporter of peace, and so opposed to Demosthenes and the anti-Macedonian party. Eucaine, a locally anæsthetic drug, comparable to cocaine in many of its qualities, but said to be less toxic and more active. Two eucaines are manufactured -eucaine a, and eucaine B. The latter is used in a 2 per cent. solution for operation on the eye and in a 5 to 10 per cent. solution for nose and throat operations. Eucalyptus, ū-ka-lip'tus, a genus of evergreen trees of the family Myrtaceae. They are chiefly Australian and are known as gums, iron-barks, stringybarks, jarrah, etc. They have peculiar leaves, which, on the older shoots, present their upper edges to the sky. The blossoms which are borne in profusion, are apetalous, with a ring of many stamens. The bud is not unlike a box, with a lid, which is pushed off as the flower opens. The timber of the eucalypts, some of which are of gigantic stature. is generally hard, tough and durable and valuable for fuel, posts, railroad ties, and kindred uses. The 'blue gum' has a bark as smooth as glass; some of the species have barks so hard and persistent, that 'iron |