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seraceæ, is a native of the Carolinas. It is a small plant, remarkable for the two sensitive limbs in which each leaf terminates. These are rounded, and stand on either side of the midrib, like the leaves of a book, halfclosed. Each half bears a trio of sharp spines, and has long sharp teeth on its margin. If a foreign object, preferably an insect, touches the upper surface, or a spine, of these limbs, the two halves promptly approach one

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Dione, di-ō'ne, according to some accounts one of the Titans, daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or, according to other accounts, of Uranus and Ge. Beloved by Zeus, by him she became mother of Aphrodite.

tivals

Dionysia, di-o-nish'i-a, festhe god Dionysus, held in many places in Greece, but especially in Athens, and celebrated with processions of bacchanals, mænads, and thyiads, as the female devotees of the god who bore the thyrsus, or sacred wand, and wore garlands of ivy, were called. Indulgence in wine-drinking formed a great part of the ceremonies, and wild hymns called dithyrambs were sung. In Phocis and Boeotia the rites were more licentious, being held in winter on the heights of Parnassus and Citharon. There were four festivals in particular: two in the spring,

when the last year's wine was ready for drinking-the Anthesteria, or feast of flowers, and the great or city Dionysia; and two in winter-the rural Dionysia, and the Lenæ, or festival of the winepress, held in January. From the end of the 6th century B.C. and onwards the great feature of these festivals was the production of tragic and comic dramas in honor of the god. It was at these festivals that all the great Greek plays were first represented.

di-o

Dionysius Exiguus, nish'i-us eks-ig'u-us (named 'the Little'), chronologist and theologian, a Scythian by birth, who lived in the 6th century. He instituted the custom of dating events from the birth of Christ, and is also noted for his collection of canonical MSS. of Scripture.

Dionysius of Alexandria (c. 190-265), bishop of Alexandria often known as 'the Great,' was a pupil and convert of Origen, and succeeded Heraclas as head of the catechetical school (232 A.D.), and as bishop (247) of Alexandria. He suffered persecution and banishment under Decius, and again under Valerian, and died in 264. He followed Origen in his opposition to Chiliasm, developed the doctrine of the Logos as against Sabellianism, and denied the authenticity of the book of Revelation. There are extant fragments of his works in Routh's Reliquiæ Sacræ (1841), and in Eng. trans. by Salmond, in the Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. vi.

As a

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Greek historian and rhetorician, was born in Halicarnassus. He tells us that he went to Rome in 30 B.C., and lived there until 8 B.C. as a teacher of rhetoric. He wrote an Early History of Rome, his chief work, which covered the period from the earliest times to 264 B.C. Only about one-half is extant. historian he was deficient in grasp of the essential points, and lacked the critical faculty, though his style is pleasing. His critical works, On the Arrangement of Words, On Ancient Orators, On the Marvellous Power of Demosthenes, and On Thucy dides, however, show great ability, true insight into the excellences of great writers, a correct perception of style, and notable purity of taste. There are editions of the History by Jacoby (in the Teubner Series, 188591); of the rhetorical writings by Radermacher (1899).

Dionysius the Areopagite, one of Paul's converts at Athens (Acts xvii. 34), regarding whom we possess no further reliable information. According to Eusebius (Church History,. iii. 4), he

became the first bishop of Athens, and is reported by one tradition to have been martyred at Athens; by another, at Paris. The Greek Church identifies him with St. Denis of France. His later renown rests entirely on his supposed authorship of a number of mystical writings in Greek, of which no genuine trace is found before the 6th century, though they may have been composed much earlier. Most scholars now agree however that they are the work of a later time and cannot be ascribed to Dionysius. Their authorship still remains unknown but they had a great influence in the Middle Ages, are characterized by a complete interfusion of Christian and neoPlatonic teachings, and reveal their author as a man of great speculative daring and religious insight. They were published by Corderius (1634).

Dionysius the Elder (c. 430367 B.C.), was born in Syracuse, of which city he was tyrant from 405 to 367 B.C. He was one of the partisans of Hermocrates, the leader of the aristocratic party. Distinguishing himself against the Carthaginians near Acragas (406 B.C.), and having secured his own election as sole general with sovereign power, he made peace with Carthage. But he soon converted this office into a despotism by raising a bodyguard of a thousand mercenaries (405 B.C) and sternly repressing all insurrections against his power. The rest of his reign is chiefly remarkable for his wars with Carthage in 398, 392, 383-378, and 368 B.C., the net result of which was to confine the Carthaginians to the western end of Sicily. He also conquered much of the south of Italy, taking Rhegium after a stubborn siege (387 B.C.), and obtained some hold on the Adriatic coast of Italy, as far north as the city of Adria at the mouth of the Po. His rule was oppressive to his subjects; the taxation in particular was very severe, but he made Syracuse one of the most powerful cities of its time. He held high literary ambitions and was himself a tragic poet, winning the first prize at Athens in 367 B.C.

Dionysius the Younger (396c. 330 B.C.), was born in Syracuse, and succeeded his father (367 B.C.). When he came to the throne Dion and Plato tried unsuccessfully to make a philosopher of him. He was expelled by Dion from Syracuse (356 B.C.), and repaired to his mother's city of Locri, where he reigned as tyrant for ten years; then regained Syracuse, which he held until 343 B.C., when he surrendered himself to Timoleon, liberator of Sicily, and retired to Corinth.

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Dionysius grammarian

Thrax, Greek who flourished about 80 B.C. He was probably a native of Alexandria, but spent some time in the practice of teaching, both in Rhodes and in Rome. His only surviving work is an Art of Grammar (ed. Uhlig, 1883), which was a standard work in schools for many centuries. He also wrote commentaries on Homer and Hesiod.

Dionysus, di-o-ni'sus, also called BACCHUS, the Greek god of wine, son of Zeus and Semele, daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. In her jealousy of Semele, Hera persuaded her to ask Zeus to show himself to her in his majesty; he unwillingly consented, and she was consumed in flames at the sight, but before perishing gave premature birth to a boy, whom Zeus sewed up in his own thigh until he came to maturity.

Bust of Dionysus or Bacchus

The boy was Dionysus. He was brought up by the nymphs of Mount Nysa, which is variously placed in Thrace, in Libya, and in other regions. When he grew up, he was driven mad by Hera, and wandered far and wide over the earth, through Syria, Asia, and India, introducing the cultivation and use of the grape. He then entered Europe by Thrace. At Naxos he found Ariadne deserted by Theseus, and made her his consort. The story of the god shows that his worship was regarded as a foreign importation. In its wild revelry it betrays an Eastern origin and symbolizes the reproduction and fertilizing forces of nature. Dionysus was attended by Silenus, Pan, satyrs, centaurs, and bacchanals; the latter were women, and bore various appellations. The wine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel were sacred to Dionysus, and various animals, such as the ram, dolphin, tiger, and panther.

Dioon. See CYCADACEÆ.

Diophantus, di-o-fan'tus, Greek mathematician who lived in Alexandria in the late third or early fourth century A.D. He wrote Arithmetica, the earliest extant work on algebra, and a treatise on polygonal numbers.

Diopside, one of the pyroxene minerals, and has the formula CaMg(SiO2)2. It occurs in granite and syenite, and also in limestone and dolomite; but the finest crystals are found in cavities and fissures in metamorphic rocks. It is usually of a pale green color, and of sp. gr. 3.3. It weathers usually to darkgreen chlorite or serpentine. Diopside is sometimes cut and polished as a gem stone, but its softness makes it unsuitable for this (H=52).

Dioptase, a bright-green mineral, H2CuSiO.. found in the Altai in Siberia, in Copiapo (Chile), and in Arizona; and on account of its color is known popularly as emerald copper.

Diop'ter, a unit of measurement used in optics to measure the power of lenses. A lens of + 1 diopter is a magnifying or convex lens of a focal length of 1 metre; a lens of +2 diopters has a focal length of half a metre; and generally a lens of + n diopters is a convex lens of a focal length of 1/nth of a metre. A lens of n diopters is a concave lens of a focal length of 1/nth of a metre. Two thin lenses put close together are equivalent to a lens whose diopter is the sum of the diopters of the component lenses. See LENSES.

Diop'trics and Catop'trics, those branches of geometrical optics which treat respectively of reflection of rays from surfaces and refraction of rays through different media. See REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT.

Diorama. See PANORAMA.

Diorite, crystalline igneous rocks of the plutonic group, having in general a similar structure to the granites. They consist essentially of plagioclase feldspar, with a ferro-magnesian mineral, which may be augite, hornblende, biotite, or hypersthene, or any mixture of these. Some diorites contain quartz. They have a higher specific gravity and a darker color than the granites, and contain less silica and alkalis, but more magnesia, lime, and iron oxide. They make excellent road-metal, and the diorites of Guernsey are widely employed for this purpose in the south of England. Diorites are now being used for ornamental monuments, instead of granite. Diorites are abundant in Germany and North America.

Dioscorides, di-os-kor'ı-dez, PEDACIUS, or PEDANIUS, Greek physician, a native of Anazarbus,

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Diosgyör, de'osh-dyûr, town, Hungary, in County Borsod, 5 miles west of Miskolcz. It has coal mines, steel works, a paper mill, and a mineral spring. Pop. 20,000.

Dip, in navigation, the difference of the altitudes of a star seen from two levels. The higher the place of observation the lower is the depression of the horizon, and therefore the 'dip' at a mast-head is greater than that observed on deck. When the observation is at a point 23 feet above the surface of the sea, the correction for dip = √23. X 1.063. If we allow for refraction, however, the formula becomes dip 23. X .984, because the amount of depression is diminished by ths.

Dip, in magnetism, the inclination of the earth's magnetic force to the horizon. It is measured by means of a magnetic needle, known as the dippingneedle, delicately poised at its centre of gravity. To facilitate the measurement, a vertical diIvided circle is usually provided, and the complete instrument is called the dip circle. (See MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL.)

Dip, in geology, the inclination of the surface of the bedding planes, as measured in degrees, from the horizontal. The direction of the dip is taken with a compass, the amount of magnitude of the dip by means of a clinometer. All questions of underground geology are affected by the dip of the stratafor example, the possibility of obtaining water-supplies by means of bores, and the chances of working known seams of coal on certain properties.

Diphtheria, dif-the'ri-a, an acute infectious epidemic disease caused by a specific microorganism, the Klebs-Löffler or diphtheria bacillus, especially common in children. Before 1826, when Bretonneau named it 'diphtheria,' it was called 'angina, and it can be traced back in medical literature for eighteen centuries. It was not until 1883, however, that Klebs described, and Löffler isolated, the bacillus which bears their names; and it was only in 1894 that treatment by the subcutaneous injection of 'antitoxin,' which has greatly reduced the proportion of fatal cases, was worked out by the German Behring and the Japanese Kitasato.

Diphtheria is particularly prev

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alent in the autumn months, and shows marked cyclical variations over longer periods, often rising to a maximum every five

or ten years.

Bacillus.—

The Diphtheria The Bacillus diphtheria is a nonmotile, irregularly rod-shaped bacillus, characterized by a granular staining which makes it possible to recognize it under the microscope in cultures made from smears taken from the throat. It is sensitive to heat and is killed almost instantly by boiling. The bacillus itself rarely invades the body tissues but produces its pathologic effects through the formation of a toxin, which is absorbed and exerts a specific effect on the central nervous system. The virulence of the bacilli, as measured by toxin production, varies considerably.

Method of Spread.-The germ enters and leaves the body by way of the nose and throat, and the disease is contracted by contact with the nasal or oral discharges of an infected person. It is often spread by milk which has become infected, but most commonly by rather direct contact or interchange of secretions, as by kissing or droplet infection from the spray thrown out in coughing or sneezing. Toys, pencils, food, fingers, handkerchiefs, or other objects which find their way into the mouth sometimes act as vehicles of infection.

The germs of the disease may come not only from those who are actually ill, but from 'carriers, who are cultivating the diphtheria bacillus in their throats without suffering from the disease, or persons who have recovered clinically but still harbor virulent organisms. Two or three per cent. of a normal population may be diptheria carriers, the proportion being much greater among those who have been in contact with persons suffering from the disease.

The

Symptoms and Diagnosis.The incubation period in diphtheria varies from one to five days. The onset may be gradual or sudden, and such general signs of infection as headache and malaise are present. temperature shows some elevation, in severe cases reaching as high as 104°. There is a sense of fulness in the throat and the glands of the neck may be tender and palpable.

The characteristic feature of the disease is the appearance of a membranous exudate, beginning usually as small white patches on the tonsils. In severe cases these patches coalesce and may become so extensive as to fill the air passages and SO greatly embarrass respiration as to make

intubation necessary for the introduction of air. After five or six days from its formation, the false membrane separates from the mucous membrane in flakes, or in complete casts of the part from which it comes. It leaves a raw surface behind it, and there may be some bleeding, but the ulcers are generally very shallow. The membrane is fibrinous, and in it are the characteristic bacilli. A fresh membrane often forms after the first is cast off.

The diagnosis of diphtheria is generally easily made by inspection of the throat, and may be confirmed by bacteriological tests. The disease is to be differentiated from tonsillitis, in which the tonsils are more enlarged and inflamed and the exudate is yellowish in color, cheesy, and friable, usually occurring in spots around the crypts.

Course of the Disease.-Mild cases of diphtheria are usually in a convalescent stage in five or six days. Generally there are no complications, but the mildest case may develop some paralysis, and some quickening of the heart's action is always to be found. The hospital routine keeps the patient in bed for ten days. He is then allowed up; cultures are taken on the twelfth day, and he is discharged when two successive negative cultures at twenty-four hour intervals are obtained.

In more severe cases the amount of exudate is greater, the prostration is more pronounced, and the glands of the neck are quite enlarged. These cases show systemic poisoning, and in the second week generally develop some paralysis, as of the palate. Occasionally the toxemia is so severe that death occurs in the first few days. In the severe septic forms most of the cases succumb to systemic poisoning in from five to seven days.

Complications.-As a rule, complications and sequelæ do not occur in mild cases of diphtheria. In the severer forms, complications are almost certain to ensue. The commonest of these is some form of paralysis. This is most often first shown by difficulty in swallowing. Liquids taken into the mouth return through the nose, owing to paralysis of the soft palate. Paralysis, or paresis (partial loss of power), may spread to the muscles of the larynx, of the neck, of the arms and legs, and of the muscles concerned in respiration. One of the greatest dangers following diphtheria is that of heart failure, which may occur early in the disease and be manifested by nausea and vomiting.

holds

Treatment.-Antitoxin the chief place in the treatment

of diphtheria. It may be administered subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously, and in doses varying with the severity of the disease, with the necessary precautions against anaphylaxis or serum sickness. The earlier it is administered the more certain and rapid is the effect. Other measures include gentle irrigation of the throat with normal salt solution or a solution of bicarbonate of soda (1 drachm to a pint), where there is marked swelling of the peritonsillar tissues; complete rest, in bed; and, for the first few days. a liquid diet of as nourishing a character as possible. With involvement of the larynx, intubation may be required. In severe cases rest and quiet must be enjoined for a period of five or six weeks or even longer.

Prevention.-The most important measures to prevent the Occurrence of diphtheria are cleanliness as to the secretions of the mouth, nose, and throat, and early attention in this respect to individuals who are freely discharging secretions. The next line of defense depends chiefly upon early diagnosis and prompt and efficient preparation of cultures in all cases with susspicious throat lesions. This must be followed by immediate segregation of all persons who have been exposed to the disease and carrier examinations. the cases multiply, it is advisable, especially among children, to carry out Schick reactions and to immunize the susceptibles.

If

The Schick reaction depends for its value on the fact that only those persons contract diphtheria who have no antitoxin or only a minute amount in their blood and tissues. In such persons minute quantities of diphtheria toxin, when injected intracutaneously, produce a local reaction characterized by a circumscribed area of redness and slight infiltration about the injection site. In this way susceptible persons may be determined and immunized against the disease by the injection of standardized preparations of toxin neutralized by antitoxin, or of anatoxin (or toxoid), a toxin which has been rendered nontoxic by incubation with formalin.

By a campaign of education in the early use of antitoxin in cases of diphtheria, the control of carriers, and the testing and immunization of children of school age, it is believed that the elimination of diphtheria may eventually be accomplished. Diphtheria in Poultry. POULTRY, DISEASES OF.

See

Diphthong, dif'thong, a conjunction of two vowels in a syl

lable to form one compound sound, as in 'coin,' 'mouse.'

Dipleidoscope, dip-li'dō-skōp, an instrument for determining correct time by transit observations of the sun or of a star. It consists of an equilateral prism formed of three reflecting surfaces, two silvered, and one in front unsilvered. As the object approaches the meridian, two images are perceived, one singly, the other doubly reflected, which coincide, if the adjustment is accurate, at the instant of transit. The use of a small telescope secures a higher degree of precision.

Diplococcus. See BACTERIOL

OGY.

Diplodocus, dip-lod'ō-kus, a fossil dinosaur, herbiverous and probably aquatic, which inhabited the marshes and swamps of Jurassic seas and lowlands. Its main features are its gigantic size; its long, low body; extremely small head; long neck; short, deep trunk; long tail, thick at the base; and four legs of almost equal length, armed with heavy

justing the mutual relations of nations. Its necessity arises from the interdependence of modern states, and the rights and duties of political intercourse. Its practical rules are embodied partly in those international customs and usages which constitute what may be called common law, and partly in those treaties which may be regarded as international law.

The system of diplomacy is comparatively modern, not having existed in ancient times-the relations of Rome, for instance, with other powers having been confined to temporary embassies for occasional purposes; while during the Middle Ages, the pope, particularly after the supremacy of the church had been established, acted as a kind of mediator and go-between-as, for instance, repeatedly between England and Scotland in the time of Robert Bruce.

The diplomatic hierarchy, as fixed by the annex to the Treaty of Vienna in 1815, falls into three

Skeleton of Diplodocus Carnegii

claws. The peculiar arrangement of the vertebræ, with its system of plates and buttresses, give it its name, which means 'doubleraftered.' The finest specimen extant is in the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, and the following are its dimensions: total length (tip of nose to tip of tail), about 60 feet; height, about 12 feet; head, 2 feet long; neck, 20 feet; trunk, 13 feet, with a depth of 7 to 8 feet; tail, 25 feet. Its weight, when alive, has been estimated at 20 tons, and it is said to have required 500 lbs. of vegetable food daily. See DINOSAURS.

Diploma (Greek, 'something doubled'), originally a document

on

two tablets of wax (see DIPTYCH), or on writing material which was folded. The term is now chiefly applied to documents given by universities and other learned societies, in proof of the holder having attained a certain degree; to the licenses held by physicians and surgeons; and to certificates of merit awarded at exhibitions. In Europe, bodies which confer diplomas are under the control of the state. See DEGREE.

Diplomacy, the art of conducting the intercourse and ad

ranks (1) Ambassadors, Legates, or Nuncios, who alone have the representative character (see AMBASSADOR; NUNCIO); (2) Envoys Extraordinary or Ministers Plenipotentiary, accredited to sovereigns; (3) Chargés d'Affaires, who are entitled to transact business only with the minister for foreign affairs. Every diplomatic agent must be furnished with a letter of credence stating the general object of his mission, and requesting that full faith and credit be given to what he shall say on behalf of his court. From the moment that a public minister enters the territory of the state to which he is sent, until he leaves the country, he is entitled to an entire exemption from the local jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. An ambassador, as representing a sovereign power, ranks in the court to which he is accredited immediately after the princes of the blood royal.

The international law of Europe has attributed to certain states what are called royal honors, which entitle the states by whom they are possessed to precedence over all others who do not enjoy the same rank, along with the exclusive right of send

ing to other states diplomatic agents of the first rank. Such royal honors are enjoyed by the empires and kingdoms of Europe, and among Catholic states by the pope; and the same right extends to the United States.

Where the rank of different states is equal or undetermined, different expedients have been resorted to for the purpose of avoiding a contest, and at the same time securing the respective rights and pretensions of the parties. This subject was left by the Congress of Vienna on the ancient footing of custom. The most important of these expedients is what is called the alternat, by which the rank and place of the various powers are changed from time to time, either in a certain regular order, or in one determined by lot.

Colloquially, the term Diplomacy is frequently applied to conduct which, if not altogether fraudulent, is characterized by a certain degree of cunning and subtlety. This use of the word probably arose from the popular impression that, in conducting the affairs of nations, there is in use a code of morality which would be condemned if practised by individuals in their intercourse with one another. Of late years. however, the higher and more advanced conceptions of international relations, have considerably modified the older view of the functions of diplomacy and diplomats. In conducting honest negotiation with a view to preserve peace among the nations, so long as it is consistent with the honor of his country; in seeing that the rules of justice are observed among men; in preserving the weaker states against the more powerful; and in the duty of watching over the equitable administration of the minor rules of international law, there lies before the modern diplomat a sphere of action as honorable as it is arduous.

General convenience early suggested the use of one language in diplomatic intercourse. For many centuries Latin was the ordinary medium of political correspondence, then Spanish. From the time of Louis XIV until after the Great War it was French, but since that time both French and English have been about equally employed. The suspension of diplomatic intercourse usually precedes a declaration of war; it is also sometimes employed as a means to coerce a weaker state.

In the United States its relations with foreign states are committed to the Secretary of State and the State Department (see DIPLOMATIC Service).

Consult Hill's History of European Diplomacy.

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Diplomaties, the science of the criticism of documents, so named from J. Mabillon's treatise De Re Diplomatica (1681), which first established its principles. The second chief general treatise on the subject is the Nouveau traité de diplomatique, by Toustain and Tassin (1750-65). Originally it included Palæography (q.v.); but diplomatics is now usually limited to the forms and structure of documents which have a legal value, and particularly to the criticism and testing of documents on the basis of a thorough and comprehensive study of the rules for drawing them up which prevailed at different times.

History is concerned with finding out the truth, the actual facts which occurred, and aims at relating those facts as they occurred. Diplomatics, on the other hand, does not discuss the truth of the facts; it seeks to test the genuineness of the record. By ar the largest and most impor ant class of the documents with which diplomatics deals consists of charters and analogous deeds, and to these alone the following account applies.

A document may either be the vehicle of a grant or other act, or it may declare the fact that a grant has been made, or that a transaction has been completed. It is composed of two parts-the protocol and the text; or of three parts, if there is a final protocol. The seal may be either affixed to the face of the document (plaqué, or en placard), or pendant. In the latter case it is attached in one of three ways-(1) by strings of silk or hemp; (2) by a doubled slip of parchment inserted through a slit in the document; (3) impressed on a narrow strip cut out of the lower margin of the document.

The production of a document involves several stages. Often it begins with a petition requesting its issue; then follows the draught, repeating the material facts in the petition, but put into proper form; and, lastly, the fair copy, which, when it has been duly attested. becomes the original. The officer by whom or under whose direction a document is drawn up was called at various places, and in various times, bibliothecarius, referendarius, capellanus, or cancellarius. The office is conventionally known as the chancery. The two principal chanceries in Western Europe are the papal and the imperial, whence proceed both the German and the French.

Until the later Middle Ages papal documents all belonged to a type known to us, from the leaden (or sometimes golden) bulla or seal appended to them, as bulls. Often they are called by the general name of rescripts. All have the form of a letter, and, in fact, reproduce the features of the Roman letter of classical times. Late in the thirteenth century a new form of papal letter makes its appearance, which becomes established in the fifteenth century. This is the brief, distinguished by a waxen seal instead of a bull, as well as by other changes of style.

The imperial diploma (or præceptum) is developed from the Merovingian form, which was a letter accompanied by a chancery attestation and (usually numerous) subscriptions of witnesses. Under King Pepin the form of the letter is so far lost that the address disappears, and there are no longer witnesses. Early in the eleventh century witnesses are again found, and they become regular a century later. About the same period we find a simpler type of document, which becomes common in the twelfth century; this, but for the absence of an address, might be described as letters patent. Side by side with it emerges another type, with an address, which answers to the letters close.

In France there is considerable irregularity in the style and formulæ; but the chancery was gradually reduced to order during the twelfth century, and under Philip Augustus the three great classes of diplomas, letters patent, and letters close are regularly employed. After his reign the diploma becomes more and more infrequent; its place is taken by the letters patent en forme des chartes-i.e., by letters patent which preserve two features of the diploma, the absence of the address and of the greeting. Letters missive were largely used for administrative business from the fourteenth century onward, and are much like letters close. A special form of letters missive, known as lettres de cachet, makes its appearance in the sixteenth century.

In England the Anglo-Saxon diploma or landbook is never drawn up in the form of a letter; it does not mention the name of its writer; and there is no chancery attestation, no datum, and no seal. The source to which this type is traced is the ancient Roman private document, and among its features, as developed in England, may be mentioned the long columns of subscriptions of witnesses, with crosses prefixed, and often the precise description (or 'perambulation') of the property granted. Under

Ethelred the Unready (c. 984) we first meet with a shorter and simpler type of document-the writ. This has the form of a private letter addressed by the king to his officers.

Both these forms of document persist into the middle of the twelfth century, and the writ even beyond. But side by side with them there was developed the royal charter, which adopted, but in a briefer form, several features from the old diploma. Under John the chancery is completely organized, and the documents issuing from it become divided into three well-marked classes charters (with witnesses), letters patent, and letters close (with the king's witness)— all bearing the great seal, of which the first continues down to 1516, and the two last have been in constant use down to the present day. A type of document nearly resembling the diploma is the act or constitution containing the record of a council and its decrees.

In England documents were not copied into books, but entered on rolls. In the chancery one skin was sewed to another to make one continuous roll for the year; in the exchequer the skins were sewed together (or 'filed') at the top. The English series of enrolments is unique in its compass and completeness, the charter, patent, and close rolls beginning respectively in the first, third, and sixth years of John. See PALEOGRAPHY.

Diplomatic Service, a governmental system of representation in foreign countries for the purpose of fostering friendly relations, protecting the rights of citizens abroad, and expanding foreign commerce.

United States.-The officials of the United States diplomatic service include ambassadors, envoys extraordinary, ministers plenipotentiary, ministers resident, commissioners, counselors, secretaries of embassies and legations, chargés d'affaires and agents. The duties of ambassadors, who are accredited to countries of the first importance, include personal representation of the head of the state, the negotiation of agreements between the United States and the countries to which they are accredited, and the study of political, social, and economic conditions. Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, as well as ministers resident, exercise the same duties as ambassadors, without the latter's special ceremonial privileges. Commissioners often bear commissions signed by the head of the government and are received as full envoys, but sometimes they are appointed by the Secretary of State and are with

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