meticulous observance of certain rules of sound organization, such as avoidance by a superior of 'going over the head' of a subordinate, or transversely a subordinate taking action without authority, or a department head crossing the lines of his charted authority, out of his sphere. Balanced authority and smoothflowing cooperation is the general goal.

num

Forms of organization vary widely. Railways use a ber of vice presidents, each in charge of a division of activity; but in manufacturing organization this form is used only by the vertical or circular consolidations which have a variety of types of enterprises. Often, though, there is a vice president in charge of sales and one in charge of production; sometimes one in charge of finance. The general tendency in modern times is for the board of directors not actively to administrate the business, but to give full powers to the president and the vice presidents, with sometimes a chairman of the board watching over the management, without actually participating. In some organizations the president acts in this manner, while the active responsible head is the general manager. In other cases an executive committee of the directors, or one composed of active heads, acts as an intermediary between the board of directors and the management. Much criticism since 1929 has fallen upon banker-dominated boards of directors who operated the company from too strictly a financial point of view. The technical executives are now rated more highly in management, and presidents of companies who were either too narrowly financial, or too production-minded (in this distinctly distribution age) have been discredited in favor of consumptionminded top executives, who understand markets (the primary consideration in modern manufacturing organization).

Large-scale versus small organization in manufacturing may be said to have counterbalancing values, but with the greatest advantage on the side of largescale production in lines where adequate capital and modern equipment count most and service least. Harvard University researches (1934) indicated that large-scale manufacturing made more consistently satisfactory profit than smaller organizations. The progress of manufacturing organization has been from small shop to large, then to horizontal consolidation, operating a series of plants; then to vertical consolidation, operating a series of related enterprises, such as

growing, mining or processing of raw materials; then to circular consolidation, manufacturing and selling a group of unrelated products, distributed through the same channels; then triangular consolidation, manufacturing, wholesaling and retailing (this last one not yet proved in efficiency). The 1929-1934 depression tested business organization severely, particularly demonstrating the weakness of highly centralized group organizations put together for financial rather than technical advantage. It also demonstrated that the superior position of small business organization, in its proper sphere where volume, large capital and fractional profit margins and standardization are not important factors, but where good will, service, individuality. low overhead and swift adaptation count. There appears to be ample room for both developments side by side.

Considerations in starting new factory organizations cover such research of existing field for proposed product; analysis of competition, price levels, costs, profits, research of consumer and distributor attitudes, technical and competitive tests of proposed article; study of trade-mark or patent situation; study of raw material status and prospects; study of plant location from angles of raw materials, labor, distribution cost; budgetary plan for five years of operation; study of capital needs, capital structure best suited; analysis of manufacturing process, machinery; study of unit costs on volume production ratios; study of proposed prices, discounts, margins, analysis of sales and advertising cost, merchandising methods, packaging; layout of functional organization; study of available personnel; blue print or schedule of five-year plan and procedure; detail of policies and principles.

Specific factory organization, in the sense of production solely, starts with the research of the product, chemically or mechanically or both; then goes on from there to purchase and storage of raw materials, the routing of the processes of manufacture on a continuous line basis, mechanization of processes, power plant, consultation with designers of special machinery, designing or remodeling of factory buildings to fit, location of skilled labor, negotiation with unions, arrangements for supervision and inspection, special counsel on power or scientific management on motion study, tuning up, setting of standards of work, and maintenance of morale.

Factory building ideas were radically changed in the period

1914-1934. The use of directly applied electric motors, the continuous-line process, motion study, modern lighting ideas (which tend toward windowless factories, air-conditioned and artificially lighted), and the vastly increased use of high-speed tools and automatic machinery, have produced changes almost as great as the turn from water power to steam. Studies in 1934 indicated that about 60% of industrial factory buildings were obsolete. Greatly improved efficiency in almost any type of manufacture is possible by the use of the newest ideas of factory building and process. This is due to greatly increased labor costs which make the use of human hands more costly than ever, while at the same time modern automatic machinery design has achieved new heights.

Material handling had reached very unusual lengths of development, due to need for elimination of human labor. Special electric trucks and cranes, plant trolley systems, the use of shutes and gravity feed, and the team

ing up processes, machinery, building arrangements, railway unloading machinery, moving belts, elevating apparatus, pumps, tractor hauled cars, pipe pressure systems, and all manner of ingenious devices are being made use of in manufacture to eliminate handling. In many instances the entire process became automatic from the first movement of raw material to the packing of the finished product. Factory organization and management is thus in large part concerned with cutting unit costs, both of manufacturing process and of handling. In a large plant general systematization of routine and mechanization of supply for workers is of utmost importance, because a fractional difference repeated thousands of times makes a worth-while total per day. A skilled workman should be using his skill, a large part of the time, not his mere muscles for material handling which an unskilled worker or a conveyor could do for him. This is the principle in motion study which Taylor, Gantt, and Gilbreth so eminently developed. There must be distinguished here carefully the difference between the 'speeding up' to which labor unions object, and the competent bringing and taking away of materials from a skilled worker, in order that he may really use his skill. Competent handling of materials for him actually lightens his load. Industrial strain workers by 'speeding up' is not sought by good factory management. What is desired is simply greater intelligence and work

on

tendency toward decentralizing industry is taking place; i.e., to scatter factories into suburbs and small towns. Henry Ford aimed at coordination between farm and industry.

Employment departments of today acknowledge greater responsibility in hiring and laying off help, using questionnaires and detailed study to fit the worker to the job and induct him into it properly. They make work tests and set up specific employment standards for certain types of work. They set up machinery for supervision which will be fair, and work out principles of work councils, employee participation, grievance committees, etc.

Some very unusual developments have taken place since 1930 in employee relations and in cooperation between unions and management. While some such cooperation has been known (as in the typographical unions), it has in such instances been forced by unions (the chapels, supreme in shop management). The modern union-management cooperation is best exemplified in the Baltimore & Ohio railway shops, the 'B & O plan' which began in 1923. Management and employees pledged themselves to reduce operating costs by economies, new methods and improved processes; the reward being stabilization and extension of annual period of regular work. Local, divisional and general joint committees of management and men operate this. Its results have been markedly successful. Six other railways had by 1934 adopted this plan. The Procter & Gamble Company set up a plan whereby it guaranteed year-round employment to workers of a certain status.

The

Lever Bros., Rountree, Cadbury, etc., had long taken the lead in a liberal employee relations, especially in housing, working conditions, etc., although England's world free trade competitive position until 1931 prevented her from going as far as America in hours and wages.

Employment departments keep detailed records about workers, make tests, check records, instruct workers, rate wages, make contracts, hear complaints, conduct special studies, develop employment statistics.

Administration.-There are normally four main business organization functions: (1) Market Study and Marketing; (2) Administration; (3) Finance; (4) Production. These functions were formerly said to be production, administration, sales; but modern industrial knowledge rearranged them; consumption and markets come first; next, men to administer; next, money; next, production, ordered to fit market and finance. Administration is a coördinative task, calling for functional departments presided over by executives of special training, complete authority, and these woven together coordinatively by general executives whose task is to visualize the problems of the enterprise as a whole. Certain administrative types of work are common to all divisions such as stenographic service, recordmaking and keeping, research, cost accounting, legal, traffic, filing, correspondence, accounting, etc., and these are linked into one department in many efficient organizations for the benefit of mass handling. In this way they too have become professionalized, as for example office management, financial management, traffic; these opening up opportunities as separate professions. Thus as business has grown in size it has magnified into a specialty certain types of work which had not been concentrated upon before; hence making possible, as in all specialties, interchange of experi

ence.

Administration, to be successful, must (1) clarify its general goals and visualize them vividly, (2) set performance standards to attain these goals within specific time limits and specific cost, (3) select men competent to lead the departmental effort necessary to accomplish results; (4) offer incentives sufficient to call out the best in such men, (5) back them up fully, and coördinate all effort smoothly, (6) arrange for flow of money and credit, raw materials and supplies sufficient to meet demands, (7) instill a strong general esprit de

corps, (8) be prepared to revise policy and plan to fit conditions as they arise, (9) protect and enhance the general name and good will of the concern. (10) keep alert and open-minded for suggestions and ideas from any

source.

Research is a powerful arm of modern administration; its basis being the modern desire to base decisions upon solid fact rather than judgment, experience or guesswork. This refers especially to business research as contrasted with product research. General executives in modern times are humble instead of arrogant in opinion, realizing the very limited nature of one man's experience or judgment, and the superiority of field study, research, statistics, law of averages, analyses.

Outside Counsel has also enormously grown in use and value since 1914, as it became recognized that specialized knowledge had expanded to such a degree that even department heads could not be expected to be experts in all divisions of their field. Thus production engineers, power experts, motion study specialists, factory layout experts, efficiency engineers, etc., have been of great aid to factory production. In the same way sales counsellors, advertising counsellors and outside market research firms, sales coaches, etc., have aided sales departments. In administrative departments budgetary experts, tax experts, bankers, expert cost and general accountants, office efficiency experts, etc., have aided in holding down unit costs of administration and made available the pooled experience and technique of many companies.

Consult E. H. Schell, Technique of Executive Control (1932); Scott-Clothier-Mathewson, Personnel Management (1931); Lowry-Maynard Stegemerten, Time and Motion Study (1933); J. George Frederick, Business Research and Statistics (1926); W. J. McDonald, Handbook of Business Administration (1926); P. M. Atkins, Factory Management (1931).

Faculæ (little torches'), so called by Father Schenier of Ingolstadt, who noticed them about 1612 as bright streaks and patches on the sun's surface. They rise from the photosphere (q. v.) and show conspicuously near its margin. Some of them extend 20,000 miles in length, and their duration is sufficient for determinations by their means of the sun's rotation.

Faculty. In the educational sense, faculty originally designated one of the chief divisions of university instruction-theology,

law, medicine, and philosophy. The term is also applied to the teaching body of a college or other educational institution, and in this sense is usually confined to the teachers of professional rank. In American colleges the functions of the faculty have in recent years been broadened to include powers of recommendation and appointment to collegiate positions as well as of internal administration. In the present university organization each grand division has its own faculty, ordinarily represented by delegates to a general body representative of the institution at large.

In English ecclesiastical law a faculty is a license, dispensation, or permission. The statute of 25 H. VIII. c. 21, which prohibited all applications to the pope for dispensations, licenses, etc., gave power to the Archbishop of Canterbury to grant them. His court is called the Court of Faculties, and the head of it is the Master of the Faculties. It is situated at 23 Knightrider Street, Doctors' Commons, London. This court grants special licenses to marry, and faculties to ordain a deacon under the age of twentythree, or to hold two livings at once, or to act as a notary public. Faculties are also granted by the Consistory Court of the bishop of the diocese for many other purposes, such as the removal of dead bodies, the alteration of churches or parsonages, the erection of monuments, or the introduction of new ornaments or furniture. See Phillimore's Ecclesiastical Law (1895).

The term is also used in Scotland to designate the Society of Advocates of Court of Session, and of legal practitioners forming incorporated bodies. In England the word is not used in this sense. Fadeyev. See NEW SIBERIA ISLANDS.

Faed, JOHN (1819-1902), Scottish artist, was born at Burley Mill, Kirkcudbrightshire. In 1841 he went to Edinburgh, and for eight years practised there as a miniature painter, after which he settled in London. Among his chief works are Shakespeare and his Contemporaries, The Cottar's Saturday Night, The Soldier's Return, The Morning after Flodden, An Incident of Scottish Justice.

Faed, THOMAS (1826-1900), Scottish painter, brother of John Faed, was born at Burley Mill, Kirkcudbrightshire; studied at the Art School, Edinburgh, and in 1849 was elected Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. In 1852 he settled in London, and began to exhibit regularly at the Royal Academy, of which he was elected associate in 1859 and full member 1864. Out of sympathy

with the conventional sentimentality of the day, he relied upon his own observation, and strove after a simple fidelity to nature. His themes are taken from Scottish peasant life, and his sincere tenderness of feeling and conscientious workmanship soon brought him wide popularity. Among his most celebrated pictures are The Mitherless Bairn, The First Break in the Family, Faults on Both Sides (Tate Gallery), In Time of War (Liverpool), and Annie's Tryst (Edinburgh). See the Magazine of Art (October, 1900).

Faenza, tn. and episc. see prov. Ravenna, Italy, 31 m. by rail S.E. of Bologna; famous in the 15th and 16th centuries and at present for its pottery (whence faïence) and majofica. The town has a 15th century cathedral containing many works of art, and a fine art gallery. It also manufactures silk. Pop. (1901) 39,757. Fæsulæ. See FIESOLE. Fagotto. See BASSOON.

Faguet, EMILE (1847), French literary historian, born at La Roche-sur-Yon; since 1897 professor at the University of Paris, and since 1900 member of the French Academy. He is one of the most learned and brilliant of modern French literary critics. His works embrace studies on the great French writers of the 16th19th centuries (1885, 1887, 1890, 1894); monographs on Voltaire (1894), Flaubert (1899), and Zola (1903); Histoire de la Littérature Française (1900), etc.

Fagus. See BEECH.
Fahlun. See FALUN.

Fahrenheit, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686-1736), German physicist and scientific instrument-maker, born at Danzig; studied under Gravesande, the Dutch mathematician and friend of Newton, and finally settled at Amsterdam. He invented an areometer, substituted mercury for alcohol in the tubes of thermometers, and devised the thermometric scale (freezingpoint, 32°; boiling-point, 212°) still used popularly and by meteorologists in England, Holland, and the United States. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1724.

Faidherbe, LOUIS LÉON CÉSAR (1818-89), French general, born at Lille. He took part in expeditions in Algeria and the W. Indies, and went to Senegal in 1852, being made governor in 1854. After the fall of Napoleon III. he was summoned by the government of the National Defence to France, and (1870) appointed commander-in-chief of the Northern Army, but was defeated near St. Quentin (1871). He was then sent to Egypt to study the archæological remains. He was the author of Collection des Inscrip

tions Numidiques (1870), Epigraphie Phénicienne (1873), Le Soudan Français (1884), etc. See Life, in French, by Fulcrand (1890), and by Brunel (ed. 1897).

Faïence, or FAYENCE, a name loosely applied to several kinds of pottery ware. See POTTERY.

Fallsworth, urban dist., Newton Heath, 4 m. N.E. of Manchester, Lancashire, England, with cotton-spinning, silk-weaving, and manufacture of hats. Pop. (1901) 14,152.

Fainting, or SYNCOPE, is a form of insensibility due to a temporary anæmia of the brain. It is specially apt to occur after exhaustion arising from over-exertion, wasting disease, fasting, bad air, loss of blood, or any similar cause. Some faint at the sight of blood or from the scratch of a vaccinator's needle. Startling or distressing news may produce a fainting-fit, especially in those who are weak. Frequently recurring fainting-fits point to serious heart weakness.

Treatment.-Tight

clothing should be loosened, and the patient should be laid flat, with the feet higher than the head, to encourage sufficient flow of blood to the brain. If the amount of blood in the body be insufficient through hæmorrhage, it may be economized by temporary firm bandaging of the arms and legs, from fingers and toes upward, so that the blood is pressed out of the limbs, and kept to serve the vital parts for the time. Hæmorrhage is also treated by the injection of warm saline solution (roughly a teaspoonful of common salt to a pint of water) into a vein, or preferably, because more easily, under loose skin or into the bowel, whence it is rapidly absorbed. Fresh air, a dash of cold water on the face, inhalation of stimulants such as alcohol, ether, or ammonia, complete rest, and freedom from excitement soon bring complete recovery from an ordinary fainting fit.

Faioum. See FAYUM.

Fair. A fair is a market, but it is held less frequently. It generally extends over a longer continuous period, and is of a more miscellaneous character than a market. Every fair was originally a holiday or saint's festival, which, owing to the concourse of people, was utilized by the itinerant trade. In many cases the commercial aspect has now completely disappeared, the name in Britain being frequently appropriated for an annual local holiday

e.g. Glasgow Fair. The security guaranteed to the merchant, not only while the fair lasted, but also while he was journeying to or from it, was a very useful supplement to the law of the land. In some districts there

was a regular succession of fairs, which thus practically guaranteed, all the year round, freedom and security of transit. In France, in the Champagne country, there were in the 12th century six fairs-Provins, Troyes, etc.extending over the whole year, and the money used at these fairs was a kind of international currency; hence Troy weights. The importance of fairs diminished in England after the time of Edward I. One of the most famous of English fairs was that of Stourbridge, near Cambridge, of which

sold, at Frankfort, and at NijniNovgorod are the best known in modern Europe; but others of importance are or were held at Beaucaire in France, Irbit in Russia, Pesth in Hungary, and Bergamo in Italy. The fair of NijniNovgorod retains most of its importance, and attracts traders from all parts of the Russian empire, and during its height spreads itself over an area of seven square miles. The fairs of Siberia are still of great importance, and at Kiakhta a large proportion of the commerce between China and the

and was brought to America in 1843 by his parents, who settled in Geneva, Ill. James received a good education there and in Chicago, where he made a specialty of chemistry. He was one of the first to cross the plains to California in 1849, and among the earliest to abandon placer mining for underground work, in which his knowledge and judgment of minerals gave him a great advantage. On the discovery of the Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nev., he removed to that place, and in 1867 organized a combine

descriptions are given by Defoe and Thorbold Rogers. The fair was opened on September 8, and lasted for three weeks; and during this time the ordinary judicial and other officers were put aside in favor of the officials of the owners of the fair, and the court of Pie Powder (i.e. pieds poudrés-dusty feet-that is, travelling merchants) had supreme jurisdiction in the fair. Another great English fair was that of St. Bartholomew, held at Smithfield, London, until 1855. The great fairs at Leipzig, where leather, cloth, and furs are

Russian empire is transacted. In the U. S. the fair as a market does not exist; but it has been adopted in some places as a kind of minor exhibition either in connection with an agricultural or live-stock exhibition or a local industrial exhibition. The county fair usually includes horse-racing and other sports, and in many cases the original agricultural side of the exhibition is more or less lost sight of.

Fair, JAMES GRAHAM (183194), American 'bonanza king,' was born near Belfast, Ireland,

with Mackay, Flood, and William T. O'Brien, the four eventually gaining control of the principal silver mines in that vicinity and clearing up over $100,000,000 in the process. Mr. Fair was

elected U. S. senator from Nevada in 1881. He established, with his partners, the Nevada Bank, but withdrew from all business in 1886. Afterward it became necessary for him to come to the rescue of his former partners, who had attempted to manipulate a wheat corner. The renewed business activities incumbent on