do not agree in this mode of expression. Declension is used by the Greek and Latin; but in the English, French, and Italian, it is not found; or, at most, it exists in a very imperfect state. These languages express the relations of objects by prepositions, which are the names of those relations prefixed to the names of objects. English nouns have no case, except a sort of genitive, commonly formed by adding the letters to the noun; as when we say "Pope's Dunciad," meaning the Dunciad of Pope.

Whether the moderns have given beauty or utility to language, by the abolition of cases, may perhaps be doubted. They have, however, certainly rendered it more simple, by removing that intricacy which arose from different forms of declension, and from the irregularities of the several declensions. But in obtaining this simplicity, it must be confessed, we have filled language with a multitude of those little words, called prepositions, which, by perpetually occurring in every sentence, encumber speech; and by rendering it more prolix, elevate its force. The sound of modern language is also less agreeable to the ear, being deprived of that variety and sweetness, which arose from the length of words, and the change of terminations, occasioned by cases in the Greek and Latin. But perhaps the greatest disadvantage we sustain by the abclition of cases, is the loss of that liberty of transposition in the arrangement of words, which the ancient languages enjoyed.

PRONOUNS are the representatives of nouns, and are

mode of expression?-By what languages is declension used? Where is it not found?-What do these languages · do?-Have English nouns case?-Example.

Have the moderns given beauty or utility to language by the abolition of cases?-What, however, have they done?-In obtaining this simplicity, what has language been filled with ?-What is their effect?-What is gaid of the sound of modern languages?-What perhaps is the greatest disadvantage we sustain by the abolition of cases?

subject to the same modifications of number, gender, and case. We may observe, however, that the pronouns of the first and second person, I and thou, have no distinction of gender in any language; for, as they always refer to persons present, their sex must be known, and therefore needs not to be marked by their pronouns. But, as the third person may be absent, or unknown, the distinction of gender there becomes requisite; and accordingly in English, it hath all the three genders, he, she, it.

ADJECTIVES, as strong, weak, handsome, ugly, are the plainest and most simple in that class of words, which are termed attributive. They are common to all languages, and must have been very early invented; since objects could neither be distinguished nor treated of in discourse, before names were assigned to their different qualities.

LECTURE IX.

STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE-ENGLISH

TONGUE.

Or all the parts of speech, VERBS are by far the most complex and useful. From their importance we may justly conclude, that they were coeval with the origin of language; though a long time must have been requisite to rear them up to that accuracy which they now possess.

The tenses were contrived to mark the several dis

What are pronouns?-To what are they subject?What is said of the first and second person?-What of the third person?

What is said of adjectives?

What is the subject of this lecture?
What is said of verbs?

tinctions of time. We commonly think of no more than its three great divisions, the past, the present, and the future; and we might suppose that, if verbs had been so contrived as merely to express these, no more was necessary. But language proceeds with much greater subtilty. It divides time into its several moments; it regards it, as never standing still, but always flowing; things past, as more or less distant; and things future, as more or less remote by different gradations. Hence the variety of tenses in almost every language.

66

The present may indeed be always regarded as one indivisible point, which admits no variety "I am, sum. But it is not so with the past. Even the poorest language has two or three tenses to express its varieties. Ours has four. 1. A past action may be represented as unfinished, by the imperfect tense; "I was walking, ambulabam." 2. As finished, by the perfect tense; "I have walked." 3. As finished some time since, the particular time being left undetermined; "I walked, ambulavi;" this is what grammarians call an aorist or indefinite past. 4. As finished before something else, which is also past. This is the plusquamperfect; "I had walked, ambulaveram. I had walked before you called upon me.' Our language, we must perceive with pleasure, has an advantage over the Latin, which has only three variations of past time.

66

The varieties in future time are two; a simple or indefinite future; "I shall walk, ambulabo;" and a

What were the tenses contrived for?-How many divisions do we commonly think of?—What might we suppose?-How does it divide time?-How does it regard it?

How may the present be regarded?-Is it so with the past? What has the poorest language?-How many has ours? What are they?-Has our language an advantage over the Latin?

How many are the varieties in future time ?-What are thoy?

future having a reference to something else, which is ikewise future; "I shall have walked, ambulavero; I shall have walked, before he will pay me a visit."

Beside tenses, verbs admit the distinction of voices, viz. the active and passive; as, "I love, or I am loved." They admit also the distinction of modes, which are intended to express the perceptions and volitions of the mind under different forms. The indicative mode simply declares a proposition; "I write; I have written." The imperative requires, commands, or threatens ; "Write thou; let him write." The subjunctive expresses a proposition under the form of a condition, or as subordinate to something, to which reference is made; "I might write; I could write ; I should write if the matter were so. This expression of the perceptions and volitions of the mind in so many various forms, together with the distinction of the three persons, I, thou, and he, constitutes the conjugation of verbs, which makes so great a part of the grammar of all languages.

Conjugation is reckoned most perfect in those languages, which, by varying the termination or the initial syllable of the verb, expresses the greatest number of important circumstances without the help of auxiliary verbs. In the oriental tongues verbs have few tenses; but their modes are so contrived, as to express a great variety of circumstances and relations. In the Hebrew they say in one word, without the aid of an auxiliary, not only, "I taught," but, "1 was taught; I caused to teach; I was caused to teach; I taught myself." The Greek, which is commonly thought to be the most perfect of all languages, is very regular and complete in the modes and tenses.

Beside tenses what do verbs admit? What are they? What else do they admit?-What is the indicative mode? What is the imperative ?-What the subjunctive ?—What constitutes the conjugation of verbs?

In what language is conjugation reckoned most perfect? -How is it in the Oriental tongues?-How in the He

The Latin, though formed on the same model, is not so perfect; particularly in the passive voice, which forms most of the tenses by the aid of the auxiliary "sum." In modern European tongues, conjugation is very defective. The two great auxiliary verbs, to have, and to be, with those other auxiliaries, which we use in English, do, shall, will, may, and can, prefixed to a participle, or to another verb in the infinitive mode, supersede in a great measure the different terminations of modes and tenses which formed the ancient conjugations.

The other parts of speech, as they admit no variation, will require only a short discussion.

Adverbs are for the most part an abridged mode of speech, expressing by one word, what might by a cir cumlocution be resolved into two or more words, belonging to other parts of speech." Here," for instance, is the same with "in this place." Hence adverbs seem to be less necessary, and of later introduction into speech, than several other classes of words; and accordingly most of them are derived from other words, formerly established in the language.

Prepositions and conjunctions serve to express the relations which things bear to one another, their mutual influence, dependence, and coherence; and so to join words together, as to form intelligible positions. Conjunctions are commonly employed for connecting sentences, or members of sentences; as, and, because, and the like. Prepositions are used for connecting words; as of, from, to, &c. The beauty and strength of every language depend in a great measure on a

brew-In the Greek?-In the Latin?—In modern European tongues?

What is said of other parts of speech?

What are adverbs?-What is said of their introduction into speech?

What are prepositions and conjunctions?-For what are they commonly employed?-Upon what does the beauty and strength of every language depend?