I

NOTES

Porsena. Or Porsenna (also spelt Porsina), king of the Etruscan town of Clusium, and one of the most powerful chiefs of the period.

I

I Lars. Lar, or Larth, a title of honor given to almost all the Etruscan kings or chiefs. Clusium (the modern Chiusi). An inland city on a hill above the fertile valley of the Clanis or Glanis (the modern Chiana) (line 38, note), and near a small lake to which it gave its name. 2 The Nine Gods. The group of deities whom the Etruscans regarded as possessing the power to hurl thunderbolts.

2 He. This repetition of the subject is common in ballad poetry. It is sometimes a device for eking out the metre, but it often serves, as here, to emphasize the subject - "Lars Porsena of Clusium."

3 House of Tarqufn. The family of Tarquin was of Greek descent, its founder, Demaratus, an exile from Corinth, having settled at the town of Tarquinii and married an Etruscan wife. His son, Lucumo, removed to Rome, gained the esteem of Ancus Martius, and became his successor with the title of Tarquinius Priscus. He was in turn succeeded by his son-in-law, Servius Tullius, afterwards assassinated by Tarquin the Proud, son of the elder Tarquin and last of the Roman kings.

5 Ballads and indeed other kinds of poetry give instances of such repetitions. See lines 8 and 10, 97 and 198, 200 and 232, etc.

6 Trysting day. A day appointed for the assembling of friends or military followers. (O. E. and Scotch traist, trust, faith.)

8 Note the galloping effect of this line, due to the regular alternation of accented and unaccented syllables.

II Note here the change of tense. In stanza I it is past; here it is present. This is the "historic" present, used to give vividness to a narrative. Just as a scene actually passing before our eyes is more vivid than the recollection of one that is past, so a description in the present tense gives us clearer images than a description in the past tense. Notice how the tenses are used throughout the poem.

14 Here the Singer dramatically puts himself in the place of a loyal Etruscan.

14

Etruscan. A native of Etruria, the division of Central Italy stretching from the Tiber on the east to the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west, and having the Apennines as its northern boundary. Amain. With speed. (Lit. "with force": O. E. a — preposition on; magen, strength.) 20-25 Here is a general statement: "from town, countryside, and isolated village." At line 26 begins a particular statement; towns and country places are mentioned by name.

19

25 Purple. This is a picturesque or ornamental epithet: i.e., an adjective which is not strictly necessary to the sense, but which gives particularity to the picture. It is more interesting and vivid to read of "purple" mountains, than of mountains without any qualifying adjective. Cf. "dark Auser," ""milk-white steer," "yellow Tiber," and many other instances in this poem.

25 Apennine. A chain of mountains traversing almost the whole length of Italy, and forming the backbone of the country.

- 26 Volaterra (modern Volterra). One of the chief Etruscan cities, built on a lofty hill, and overlooking all the surrounding heights.

27 Scowls. The effect produced on the spectator is poetically ascribed to the inanimate fortress.

28 Great natural works are frequently ascribed to the agency of giants or demons. Cf. "the Giant's Causeway." The imagination of people seeks some explanation of them: hence the invention of stories of "godlike kings" and serviceable giants.

30 Populonia or Populonium, the most important maritime city of Etruria, on a lofty hill which rises abruptly from the sea, and forms the north extremity of the promontory (Cape Moresca) nearly opposite the island of Ilva or Elba (line 304, note).

31 Macaulay has the authority of Strabo for asserting that from its highest point the mountains of Sardinia were visible. But though Corsica can be seen, Sardinia is invisible, as the line of sight is blocked by the nearer mountains of Elba.

32

Sardinia. An island in the Mediterranean Sea, south of Corsica.

34 Pisa (Pisa). A city of Etruria, on the north bank of the Arnus (Arno). There seems no doubt that the modern Pisa stands upon the site of the ancient city, but owing to geological changes the city is now more than six miles from the sea, whereas the old city was little more than two. 35 That is, "chief town on the western coast." Pisa had extensive trade with Africa, Sicily, and the Mediterranean coasts.

36 Massilia. Or Massalia (the modern Marseilles). A town of Gallia Narbonensis, on the coast east of the Rhone, built on rocky ground. In quite early days it was famous for its trade.

36 Triremes. Properly, ships propelled by means of three rows of oars. (Lat. tri. — tres, three; remus, oar.) But the name became general for any kind of ship.

37 Fair-haired slaves. The Romans made slaves of the prisoners they took in their numerous campaigns. There was also an organized slave-trade with Gaul.

38 Clanis or Glanis (Chiana). A river of Etruria, formerly flowing from the neighborhood of Arretium (Arezzo) (line 58, note), through the Lake of Clusium (Lago di Chiusi) into the Tiber.

40

Cortona. An inland city of Etruria, on a lofty hill between Arretium and Clusium; about nine miles from Lake Thrasimene (line 192, note).

41 This line contains an implied simile; the towers rose above and encircled the town like a diadem, i.e., a headband worn as a sign of royalty. (Gk. dia, through, round; dein, to bind.)

42-57 These two stanzas must be taken closely together. In the first, attention is particularly drawn to the excellence of the oaks, stags, etc., in order that the fact of their being neglected by woodman, huntsman, etc., stated in the next stanza, may seem all the more striking. This is technically called antithesis. Notice how the contrast is heightened by the emphatic position of "tall," ‚""fat," "beyond all streams," "best."

43 Auser. Or Ausar (the modern Serchio). A river rising in the Apennine range on the borders of Liguria, N. Italy; formerly flowing into the Arnus, but now emptying itself into the Mediterranean by a separate mouth 7 miles north of that of the Arno.

43 Rill. Lit. a small stream; here used poetically for "river."

44 Champ. Munch with continuous action of the jaw.

45 Ciminian hill. Ciminus was the name of a lake and mountain (still called Monte Cimino) between Volsini and Falerii, in South Etruria. The whole tract was formerly covered with dense forest.

46 Clitumnus. A small river of Umbria, celebrated for the crystal clearness of its waters and for the fine breed of white cattle which were fed upon its pastures.

49 Volsinian mere (Volsiniensis Lacus, the modern Lago di Bolsena). A lake of considerable size, 9 miles long by 7 broad, deriving its name from the town of Volsinii on its northeast shore. Its sedgy shores were the haunt of large flocks of water-fowl, with which, at a later date, it supplied the Roman market.

49 Mere. An O. E. word meaning "lake," from a root meaning "to die": so properly "stagnant water." The word is found in marsh, mermaid, Windermere, etc., it is now only used in poetry. 58 Arretium (Arezzo). The most inland city of Etruria; situated in the upper valley of the Arnus, about 4 miles south of the river and near the foot of the Apennines. The Arretine territory was renowned for its fertility, producing wheat of the finest quality.

59 The men able to bear arms having been called to the war, the work harvesting, sheepwashing and shearing, grape-pressing - had to be done by the old men, boys, and women. 60 Umbro (Ombrone). A river of Etruria ranking next in importance to the Arnus, and rising in the hills between Siena and Arezzo.

62 Vats. Large tubs or vessels, especially for holding liquids undergoing treatment.

62 Luna (Luni). An Etruscan city on the left bank of the Macra (Magra) about a mile from its mouth, and therefore near the Ligurian borders. It was celebrated for its wine and its cheeses. 63 Must. New unfermented wine, which the ancients used to boil down during October (Lat. mustum).

64 After the grapes had been gathered they were first trodden with the feet in a vat (as in France to this day), and then subjected to the pressure of a heavy beam.

65 Sires. Fathers. (Fr. sire, Lat. senior, elder.)

66 Thirty chosen prophets. The Etruscan Haruspices, soothsayers, or diviners, were of the highest repute in Italy. Even those at Rome originally came from Etruria, and on special occasions the Romans long continued to send to the Etruscan college for guidance. They were consulted before any undertaking was entered upon. Cf. the story in 1 King's, xxii.

71 Their art is said to have been invented or revealed by a miraculous dwarf with gray hair, named Tages, whom an Etruscan laborer found one day in his furrow while ploughing, and whose sayings, which were delivered always in verse, were recorded in the Etruscan sacred books.

71 Turned the verses o'er. This may mean "unwound the scroll upon which the verses were inscribed," or perhaps "turned over in their minds," "puzzled out from the oracular verses a meaning favorable to Porsena's plan." The Latin volvo is similarly used in both these senses.

72 From the right. Etruscan writing, like that of the Semitic languages, ran from right to left.

73 Seers. Those who see into the future, into the will of the gods.

73 Of yore. In old time. The word yore is used in no other phrase, and only in poetry. (O. E. gedra, gen. plural of gear, year. Several other original genitives have become adverbs: e.g. 'whilst,' twice," thrice.")

44

80 Nurscia's altars. Nortia, Nurtia, or Nurscia was an Etruscan divinity, worshipped more particularly at Volsinii, where a nail was driven every year into the wall of her temple for the pur pose of marking the number of years.

81 Shields and plunder gained in war were frequently given to decorate the shrines of the gods. both by private individuals and by whole nations. Gilded shields, taken from the Samnites, are said to have been among the earliest decorations of the Roman Forum, at the triumph of Papirius in B. C. 309. (Livy, ix. 40.) It is probable that the shields were not literally "golden," but plated with gilt bronze.

83 Tale. Specified number (O. E. tal, tal, reckoning, number). Cf. Psalm, cxlvii., 4: "He telleth the number of the stars," i.e., counteth; and Milton's L'Allegro, 67 —

86 Sutrium (modern Sutri). A town of South Etruria, 32 miles from Rome, which became, after its capture by the Romans in 391 B. C., their chief frontier fortress, "the key to Etruria" (Livy).

92 For the taking arms by banished Romans against Rome cf. the famous story of Coriolanus. Stout. Probably "proud" here, like German stolz. Cf. Milton's L'Allegro, 52, the cock "stoutly struts his dames before."

93

95 Muster. Assembly of troops. (O. F. moster, Lat. monstrare, to show.)

96 Tusculan Mamilius. Tusculan of or belonging to Tusculum (modern Frascati and Il Tuscolo), an old and powerful city of Latium, 15 miles from Rome. Towards the close of the republic and the beginning of the empire it was a favorite resort of the richer Roman citizens, Cato, Lucullus, Cicero, Marcus, Brutus, Cæsar, and others, having villas there.

Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, concerning whom Macaulay paraphrases Livy's phrase Latinus dux, was the chief to whom Tarquin the Proud gave his daughter, when he was desirous of conciliating the Latin peoples. After his expulsion from Rome, Tarquin sought refuge for a time with his son-in-law, who roused the Latins, joined Porsena, and afterwards perished at the battle of Lake Regillus.

96 Latian. Of or belonging to Latium, the district of Central Italy on the Mediterranean Sea between Etruria and Campania.

96 Prince of the Latian name. That is, prince of all who were known by the name of Latins. This is an instance of the figure of speech called metonymy, in which one thing is put for another, chiefly for the sake of brevity.

98 Yellow Tiber. The river on which Rome stands. For the epithet "yellow," see note on line 25. But it may also be called a permanent epithet, so frequently does the phrase "yellow Tiber" (or its classical equivalent flavus Tiberis) occur. This permanent coupling of adjective and noun is more frequent in classical than in modern poetry. In Homer the queen of heaven is often "the ox-eyed Hera," and Vergil's hero is almost always pius Æneas.· -The waters of the Tiber bring down quantities of tawny-colored mud.

100 Champaign. Flat open country. (O. F. champaigne, Lat. campus. The district around Rome is still known as the Campagna.). The dictionaries give the accent on the second syllable, but many lines might be anoted from Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton and Tennyson in which the accent clearly comes on the first. Perhaps this was due to the M. E. corruption of the word, champian.

106 There is no principal verb from this point to line 121.

108, 109 Notice the naturalness of the picture; the innocent babes smiling while their mothers wept.

IIO Litters. Beds supported on framework. (F. litiere, Lat. lectus.)

66

115 Skins. The leathern "bottles" in which wine was carried, and still is in Spain and Italy. 121 Roaring. Notice the metaphor. Cf. Timon of Athens, v. 1. 199, enter triumphers in their applauding gates"; Tennyson, In Memoriam, cxxii. where the long street

roars.

like

122 Rock Tarpeian. In this case probably the whole of the hill afterwards called the Capitoline. Its earliest name was Mons Saturninus, but after the betrayal of the fortress to the Sabines by the vestal Tarpeia, its name was changed to that of Tarpeian Hill. On the erection of the Capitol the hill became known as the Capitoline Hill, one portion of it, however, retaining the name of Rupes Tarpeia-the rock of later history over which criminals were thrown.

123

Wan This epithet is essential as well as ornamental, because it implies that the citizens were terribly frightened; they were pale with fear.

123 Burghers. Citizens. (O. E. burg, fort or town.)

126

The Fathers of the City. Senators, members of the patres conscripti or select body of three hundred patricians acting as representative of the Roman people.

127 They. See note on he, line 2.

129 Tidings of dismay. Such tidings as would cause dismay. Cf. "Good tidings of great joy." (S. Luke, ii. 10.)

132 Nor... nor. Poetical for "not a ... nor."

133 Crustumerium. Crustumeria or Crustumium, an ancient city and district of Latium, between Fidena and Eretum, on the borders of the Sabine country.

134 Verbenna. This, like Astur and other names subsequently used by Macaulay, is merely introduced to give greater vividness to his narrative, and not because any hero of that name is known to have taken part in the struggle. Macaulay, it must be remembered, was endeavoring to reconstruct an imaginary lost ballad, and the old popular ballads which he took as model are full of names of individual heroes.

134 Ostia (from ostium, a mouth or entrance). A town of Latium, on the left bank and at the mouth of the Tiber, sixteen miles from Rome, of which it was the port.

136 Janiculum. The highest of the Roman hills, stretching along the Tuscan side of the river. It is said to have derived its name from Janus, a deified king of Latium who, according to tradition, built a town or fortress there.

138 I wis. A mistaken form of iwis or ywis (Ger. gewiss), "assuredly," "certainly." This is treated as if meaning "I know."

138 Senate. The Roman state-council, established originally for the purpose of advising the kings- the "Fathers" of line 126.

139, 140 So bold But ached. So bold as not to ache.

...

142 Consul. Upon the expulsion of the kings, the control of affairs was placed in the hands of two magistrates, at first called prætors or leaders, but at an early date termed consuls or deliberators, because it was their duty to deliberate for the welfare of the state.

144 Girded up. Fastened about the waist with girdles, in order to be able to move more freely. Cf. "And Elijah girded up his loins and ran (1 Kings, xviii. 46).

144 Gowns. The toga, or long-flowing robe which all Roman citizens of full age wore.

145 Hied them. Hastened. (O. E. higan.) The verb is reflexive.

146 Standing. It was a hasty informal meeting, not a solemn session in the Curia Hostilia. 147 River-Gate. The name looks as though Macaulay had the Porta Flumentana in his mind. Strictly, the Porta Trigemina was the gate nearest to the point of danger.

149 Musing. Lesiurely consideration. (O. F. muse, the snout of an animal. The image is that of a dog snuffing idly about.)

150 Roundly. Plainly, positively, bluntly. In round used in this sense the idea is of completeness or thoroughness -as of a circle.

151

The bridge. The Sublician bridge (Pons Sublicius), formed entirely of wood. It was built by Ancus Martius, and appears to have crossed the river near the Aventine hill, outside the Porta Trigemina, at the place where remains of a wooden bridge still exist.

151 Straight. Straightway, immediately.

155 Wild. Excited, beside himself, looking like a crazy man. 28, "Your looks are pale and wild."

Cf. Romeo and Juliet, v. 1.

160 Swarthy. Dark. The word is more commonly applied to the complexion. (O. E. sweart: cf. Milton's "swart star" and "swart faery.")

163 Red. "Red" is not an unusual epithet of smoke and dust, but here it is more than ornamental. The cloud of dust raised by the advancing army, which looked only "swarthy" in the distance, can now be distinguished as "red" in the sunlight.

176 Might. Could. (O. E. magon meant "to be able.")

177 Twelve fair cities. The twelve cities of the Etruscan league or confederacy. Though frequently referred to collectively by classic writers, their names have nowhere been fully recorded. 180 Terror. Another instance of metonymy, or change of name. The feeling excited by the thing is put for the thing itself.

180 Umbrian. Collectively for the natives of Umbria, one of the principal divisions of Central Italy, situated to the east of Etruria, and extending from the valley of the Tiber to the central range of the Apennines.