The term memories is also at times used to include mental images. Thus if any one calls to mind the way his father looks, he may be said either to have a mental image of his father or to remember his father. The words memory and remember and forget are also used for habits or matters of skill that are permanent. Thus we say that we remember how to dance, swim or play the piano. A better name here would be the permanence of habits.'

5. If you have such thoughts as,

'Eggs are nutritious.'

'Girls are better than boys.'
'Electricity is not a fluid.'
'All teachers should be paid.'
'Shakspere was a genius.'
'Virtue is its own reward.'

'Honesty is the best policy,'

there may be images of sight or sound in connection with the thought but they vary with different people and are not the important thing in the thought. The important thing is the feeling of your Meaning. Thus, in the fourth thought, you feel that you mean all teachers, though you may have an image of some one teacher, or of the sound of the word 'teacher,' or of something different. These feelings of Meaning are very important in all higher sorts of thinking. When the feeling is that we mean every one of a class of things (e. g., 'all teachers', or 'girls') the feeling is called a general notion or concept. When we feel that we mean one particular thing (e. g., when we think 'Shakspere' or 'Napoleon' or 'this apple') the feeling is called an individual notion. When the feeling is that we mean some element or quality or characteristic apart from the thing or person possessing it, the feeling is called an abstract idea or abstraction.

6. We feel not only qualities, conditions, objects and

T

meanings, but also the relations between them. E. g., look at two books, one of which is bigger than the other. You feel not only the books, but also their relation of inequality. When you feel 'cats and dogs' you have not only two general notions, but also the feeling that the things they mean are to be taken together. 'Cats without dogs' would be felt to mean something quite different. Very important among such Feelings of Relationships are those of likeness and difference and of cause and effect. Try to observe in yourself the feelings you have when you think of or, nevertheless, above, below, like, unlike, equal, unequal, the

same as.

7. The entire feelings which you had in thinking the sentences given to show feelings of meaning, would be called Judgments. They are feelings that such and such a state of affairs exists, feelings that may be expressed in declarative sentences.

8. The nature of the Emotions was briefly described in the second paragraph of § 2. The following list of sample emotions may serve further to define the group:— Admiration, amusement, anger, annoyance, anxiety, awe, envy, fear, gratitude, hatred, joy, love, pity, regret, relief, remorse, restraint, revenge, self-complacency, shame, shyness, sorrow, surprise, suspense, suspicion, sympathy, wonder.

9. Notice your feelings of desire, choice, decision, effort, conflict, impulses and intention. These feelings and others concerned with action are commonly called States of Will, or Volitional States.

A long list could be made of kinds of feelings which fall more or less outside of these chief groups. E. g., there are feelings of attention, inattention, ennui, interest, belief, uncertainty, inference, etc., etc.

Complex Mental States.-No absolute and sharp classification can be made. It is not necessary or even wise to make a cut-and-dried classification of all thoughts and feelings, since in the ordinary course of mental life mixtures of different kinds of mental states are the common occurrences. E. g., one thinks of a man and at the same time has feelings of attention to the mental image and of aversion toward the man, and perhaps a judgment that he is dishonest. Memory image, attentiveness, emotion and judgment thus combine. Nearly all mental states are pervaded by a feeling of selfhood, by sensations of one's own bodily condition and by a general feeling-tone of well-being or ill-being. It is, however, profitable in studying human nature to analyze complex states of mind into their component parts, to study separately the simpler aspects or parts of the total thought or feeling.

Intermediate Mental States.-It is also true that in the richness of an actual human mind's life there exist very many mental states which do not fall readily into one class rather than another. E.g., is the sound of a bell ringing a sensation or a percept, a feeling of a quality or of a thing? Is the feeling of impatience an emotion or a state of will? Shall the feeling of effort or strain that one has as one holds the mind to a disagreeable task be called a sensation or an emotion? Just as there are some things which may be called either animals or plants, just as there are some streams which are equally well classified as brooks or as rivers,—so there are in mental life intermediate, halfway stages between sensation and perception, perception and image, sensation and state of will, etc. It would be misleading to suppose that a man's mind was by nature divided up into a number of neat bundles, one of sensations, one of percepts, and the like, and that each bundle was quite distinct and separate from all the rest. The

division is not absolute, but is like that made when a city is divided into a Chinese quarter, Italian quarter, Jewish quarter, and the like. The divisions grade into each other imperceptibly.

Exercises

I. In studying which of the following studies does one make the most use of (a) the emotions, (b) feelings of meaning, (c) percepts, (d) states of will?-Botany, Music, Grammar, Literature?

2. What kind of a mental fact is referred to by each sentence in the following passages?—

"An unaccountable dread seized him. He heard only the rustle of the wind in the trees. Before his mind's eye came a vision of the man whom he had been compelled to forsake. Halting between the choice from two apparently equal evils, he could make up his mind neither to go forward nor to return. 'I shall lose in any case,' he mused."

"In utter amazement, Silas fell on his knees and bent his head low to examine the marvel: it was a sleeping child—a round, fair thing, with soft yellow rings all over its head. Could this be his little sister come back to him in a dream-his little sister whom he had carried about in his arms for a year before she died, when he was a small boy without shoes or stockings?

How and when had the child come in without his knowledge? He had never been beyond the door. But along with that question, and almost thrusting it away, there was a vision of the old home and the old streets leading to Lantern Yard-and within that vision another, of the thoughts which had been present with him in those far-off scenes." (Silas Marner.)

3. Which sort of mental fact is usually expressed by a proper noun? By an interjection? By a preposition?

4. What varieties of mental states may verbs express?

5. Give illustrations of a noun expressing a percept, as when a baby says 'Man, Man'; of a noun expressing a general notion, as when one says, 'Men are mortal'; of a noun expressing an emotion, as when one says, 'Man alive!'

§ 3. A General View of Human Action

Since the majority of human actions are directly connected with thoughts or feelings, psychology deals with not only the mental states, but also the acts or conduct of

men.

Conduct Equals Movements and Their Connections. All acts are reducible to movements of the body brought about by the contraction and relaxation of muscles. The common notion of an act, however, includes, besides the mere act itself, the thoughts and feelings leading to it and the circumstances under which it occurs. Thus we commonly regard Caesar's crossing the Rubicon as an act of unique importance, although the act itself was really only a series of alternate muscular contractions identical with the act of going to breakfast. The mere act of saying 'Yes' is the same whether it be a slice of bread or a husband that is accepted. The million things a man does from birth to death are at bottom only some thousands of muscular contractions. A comparatively small number of movements make up the infinite variety of human conduct by being combined in different ways, caused by different feelings and employed in different circumstances. Thus the movements of speech are only varied enough to produce some hundreds of sounds, degrees of loudness and qualities of pitch and timbre, but these few elementary movements combine to produce hundreds of languages, each with thousands of words, capable of making millions of statements and questions, each of which may be an act of many differing meanings according to the intentions and circumstances of its utterance. Human conduct is then made up of (1) acts proper, or movements, and (2) the connections between these movements and the various circumstances of life.