parts of the service of which the State assumes the entire control, as the maintenance of the teaching force, the composition of courses of study, etc. With respect to other features, although the regulations are the same for all similar institutions, their application is constantly modified by local conditions and by ineradicable tendencies which manifest themselves particularly in the development of institutions of the highest order. For this reason it is only the operations of the primary department of the system that can be fairly exhibited in a view which is necessarily limited to general provisions.

ORIGIN OF THE SCHOLASTIC INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE.

Two distinct systems of institutions, distinct as regards their origin, scholastic attributes, and present relations to the state, are comprised within the department of public instruction: (1) Primary schools, which belong to the modern era and which are largely the work of the present Republic, bearing no resemblance to and being in no sense a development from the parochial schools existing before the revolution of 1789; and (2) secondary and superior institutions, whose history can be traced to the Middle Ages.

In 1833 a law, known as Guizot's law, imposed upon the communes the obligation of establishing primary schools. The general execution of this law was hindered by the lack of schoolhouses, the apathy of the people, and the absence of effective supervision. Some progress, however, was made until the work was interrupted by the reyolution of 1848. Between that time and the establishment of the present government (1870) efforts were made to revive the policy, but with few practical results. Before undertaking to enforce the law in this respect the present Republic made the necessary provision for schoolhouses. of June 1, 1878, created a fund of $23,000,000 for this purpose, and the work of building began in earnest. This, with an effective supervision, has proved sufficient to secure the enforcement of the law obliging communes to establish schools. In 1886-87, 35,980 communes had performed this duty, 67 had only private schools, and 87 were without schools. By the law of June 16, 1881, instruction in public primary schools was made gratuitous, and by another law of the same date primary teachers were required to be provided with state diplomas (brerets de capacité). This did away with the letters of authorization from ecclesiastics, and began in earnest the effort to make the schools thoroughly national in spirit and in purpose. A law of March 28, 1882, made attendance upon public primary schools compulsory for all children not otherwise instructed and confined the instruction to secular branches. The organization was completed by the law of October 30, 1886, which prescribed minutely all the details of the service of inspec tion, of teaching, attendance, etc. The most important provision of this law, so far as immediate effects are concerned, was that requiring teachers to belong to the laity. Five years were allowed for the full

accomplishment of this purpose in schools for boys, no limit being specified as to schools for girls.

The principles involved in this system, i. e., compulsion, gratuitous and secular instruction, and a teaching service owing sole allegiance to the state, must be tested by its operations, which are considered in detail in the following pages:

Public secondary schools are of two kinds-classical schools (lycées) established by the state, and communal schools (colléges communaux) established by the communes assisted by the State.

These schools have replaced the old ecclesiastical and university colleges existing before the revolution of 1789. They preserve now very nearly the organization given to them by Napoleon.

The state maintains for superior instruction facultés comprising groups of professional men for the service of liberal and professional education. These groups have replaced the ancient universities.

The general operations of this complex system for 1887-88 are indicated by the following statistics:

TABLE I.-Statistical summary of the educational system of France, 1887-88.

a Includes 1,585 directors and assistants of superior primary schools tabulated with elementary primary teachers, and 1,694 special teachers not so tabulated.

b Does not include private primary schools.

e Includes administrative and household officials.

d Includes facultés and special schools.

e Eighty-eight per cent. borne by state; balance by departments.

ENROLLMENT AND ATTENDANCE.

The number of pupils enrolled in the primary schools, as shown in the foregoing table, is equivalent to 16 per cent. of the total population. Of the total enrollment 75 per cent. were between the obligatory ages,

i. c., six to thirteen. They represented 98 per cent. of the population between those ages. These figures are, however, misleading, since the enrollment includes all names found upon the school registers, not excluding duplicates.

For the purpose of estimating more exactly, the ratio of the attendance of pupils in the public primary schools to the enrollment in those schools a special enumeration was made of all the pupils present December 4, 1886, the season of largest attendance upon the schools, and the 4th of June, 1887, the season when attendance falls to the minimum. The number present at the former date was 3,508,409, being 91 per cent. of the number borne on the registers for that month, and 79 per cent. of the total enrollment for the year. The number present at the later enumeration (June 4, 1887), was 3,216,739, or 88 per cent. of the number borne on the registers for the month of June, and 72 per cent. of the annual enrollment.1

Comparison with 1881-82.-From a comparison of the statistics of 1881-82 with those of 1886-87, it appears that the population of school age in France (six to thirteen) increased during the five years by 3.1 per cent., while the number of children between those ages enrolled in the schools increased by 6.5 per cent.

During the same time, the enrolment of children under 6 years of age increased by 2.1 per cent., while the enrolment of children above 13 years of age diminished by 4.7 per cent.

The number of boys in secondary instruction averages one for every 239 inhabitants, or if we include the students of primary and secondary normal schools for men, 1 for every 231 inhabitants. In the absence of statistics respecting private secondary establishments for girls, comparison here is not possible.

The attendance upon university courses and the superior normal school averages 1 student for every 2,104 inhabitants.

FINANCES.

INCOME.

The income of the state system is derived from state and local appro priations, tuition fees, the property of institutious, gifts, and legacies. Local appropriations are communal or departmental.

The state appropriates annually a sufficient sum to meet the current expenditures of the system; the amounts derived for that purpose from the departments and the communes, and the receipts from fees either for tuition or board, are placed to the credit of the state.

The tax levied upon the communes for the current expenditure of primary education was fixed by the law of July 14, 1889, at 8.12 per

1 Foreign critics of French primary schools express surprise at the high percentages of attendance, especially in Paris; see in this connection a report by Sir B. Samuelson, M. P., published as a Parliamentary paper.

cent. of the revenue from the four direct taxes levied by the state for general purposes.

EXPENDITURES.

Primary schools.-The expenditures for primary schools are divided into three classes, obligatory, optional, and divers. The obligatory expenditures are current and extraordinary. The latter are for the purchase of sites and the construction of buildings. The following table shows the amount of the current expenditures in 1886-87, with the proportional part borne by each contributing source.

TABLE II.-Current expenditures for public primary schools, 1886–87.

The obligatory expenditure, column 2 of the above table, includes the costs of administration and of the primary normal schools; omitting these, the amount would be $22,366,280, which was furnished as follows:

Communes...

Departments..
State.

Per cent.

27

5

68

The marked diminution in the proportional part borne by the depart ments is due to the fact that by far the largest share of the expense for normal schools falls upon them.

The largest item in this expenditure was teachers' salaries, which amounted to 93 per cent. of the total obligatory expenditure and to 60 per cent. of the grand total.

Divers expenditures, column 7, include the costs of adult courses, funds for aiding teachers, scholarships for worthy pupils, library funds,

etc.

Comparisons with 1881-82.-As compared with 1881-82 the statistics show an increase of 16 per cent. in the ordinary obligatory expenditures on account of the public primary schools, and of 30 per cent. in the grand total of expenditure.

Comparisons based upon the total expenditures at the two dates are misleading, as prior to 1885 no account was kept of the funds contributed by the communes for divers expenses. Omitting this element altogether, the part borne by each contributing source at the two dates,

will be seen from the following table. The significant fact brought out by this comparison is the relative increase of local effort.

Extraordinary expenditures.-The current expenditure does not represent the whole effort put forth by the state for the maintenance of primary education.

The extraordinary expenditures which pertain to the construction and repair of schoolhouses and the supply of school material have yet to be considered.

The law imposes upon the communes the duty of providing and maintaining suitable school buildings and premises. Communes having no funds available for the purpose must secure a loan from the state.

Under the law of June 20, 1885, this advance takes the form of an annual sum equal to one-fourth of the principal and interest of the sum borrowed by the commune. The advances are repayable in 30 years at the least, and in 40 years at the most.

The entire expenditure for the construction of school-houses from 1878 to December 31, 1887, was $101,824,185. Of this sum 86.63 per cent. was paid prior to 1885; 13.37 per cent. from 1885 to 1887, inclusive.

Secondary schools.-The material in hand does not permit a detailed view of the expenditures for secondary schools.

The total receipts for the public secondary schools, i. e., for boys and girls, amounted in 1887 to $10,406,443, of which about 36 per cent. was derived from public funds. The sources of income for the different classes of institutions differ so widely, that a general summary of finances is misleading. The following analysis shows the composition and distribution of the annual income of every class of secondary schools: