Superior instruction.-The income of facultés and superior schools amounted in 1887-88 to nearly $3,000,000, derived as follows:

From state appropriations

Municipalities.

Covered by fees...

Per cent.

96

4

33

It should also be observed that since 1877 above $23,000,000 have been expended in buildings and equipments, of which the state bore 56 per cent., and the cities which are the seats of the facultés the balance. The entire public expenditure for education in 1887 was about $10,000,000, of which 86 per cent. was for primary instruction. QUALIFICATIONS, APPOINTMENTS, AND DISCIPLINE OF TEACHERS OF PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The teaching service of primary instruction is regulated in the main by the laws of October 30, 1886, and of July 19, 1889.

The qualifications for the service, as determined by the former law, are as follows:

Nationality and age.-Teachers must be French citizens; if men, must be at least eighteen years of age, and if women, at least seventeen. A director of a school must be at least twenty-one years of age. No one under twenty-five years of age can be a director of a superior primary school or of a school which has a boarding department. Directors and directresses of normal schools must be at least thirty years of age.

Attainments, character, etc.-In accordance with the law of June 16, 1881, teachers must be provided with state diplomas (brevets de capacité). There are two grades of diplomas for teachers of elementary primary schools (brevet élémentaire and brevet supérieur). Candidates are examined by boards (commissions d'examen) which are composed of members appointed by the academic rectors. No one can be examined for the higher diploma who has not secured the lower. There are also diplomas (brevets de capacité) for teachers of superior primary schools, nor mal schools, and for teachers of special branches in these.

No one who has been condemned in the courts for crime or immorality is eligible to the service.

By the law of October 30, 1886, all administrative functions and all commercial and industrial pursuits are forbidden to public school teachers, and they must be drawn exclusively from the laity. Time was allowed for carrying out this last provision, and also for eliminating teachers not provided with diplomas.

The situation with respect to these requirements in the public schools in 1881-82, and again in 1886-87, was as follows:

Appointment and discipline of primary teachers.-Teachers of primary schools are full (titulaires), or probationers (stagiaires), the latter forming about 20 per cent. of the effective force. The titulaires are appointed by the prefects. Great dissatisfaction has been manifested with this provision; and as a consequence the power of the prefects was modified by the law of October 30, 1886, which required them to select teachers from lists of candidates prepared by the departmental councils; the stagiaires receive their appointments from the academic inspector.

The penalties to which teachers are subject are reprimand, censure, reduction in position, suspension, removal, and absolute dismissal from the service. These penalties are inflicted by the academic inspector or by the prefect, the teacher having the right of appeal to the minister or to the supreme council.

Salaries. The law of July 19, 1889, regulating the salaries of teachers abrogates the law passed just forty years previous. Under the present law the state becomes responsible for all salaries, and the rates of compensation have been somewhat increased. Principal teachers are divided into three groups, viz, elementary, superior primary, and normal; each group is divided into five classes, with annual salaries fixed as follows:

An additional sum of $40 is allowed principals in charge of a school of three or four classes, and of $80 for a school of more than four classes. Promotion from one grade of salary to the next may be made with out a change of place; it depends upon the length and efficiency of service and can only take place when there is a vacancy. Moreover, teachers of the fifth and fourth classes can not be promoted to a superior class until after five years' service in the inferior position; no teacher is eligible to the second or first class who is not provided with the highest certificate (brevet supérieur) and who has not served at least three years in the class preceding. It is, however, expressly provided that so far as length of service affects promotion, teachers having served ten years may be placed in the fifth class; fifteen years, in the fourth class; twenty years, in the third; and twenty-five years, in the second.

Assistant teachers in primary schools are paid $160. Assistant teachers in superior primary schools, from $220 to $420.

In addition to his salary, every teacher must be provided with a resi

dence or with a money equivalent for the same. The law imposes this provision upon the communes, and fixes the rates of indemnity for residences for teachers in charge of a school having more than two classes, or having a class of the superior primary grade, as follows:

In localities where the population is from-

The indemnity for residences allowed all other regular teachers is one-half the above sums, and for probationers one-fourth.

Communes of less than 1,000 inhabitants, which are the chief places of their respective cantons, pay the same indemnity as those of 1,000. Pensions, etc.-The law of June 9, 1853, extending the civil pension list to include teachers, still remains in force;. teachers who are pledged to give ten years' service in the public schools are relieved from military service in time of peace.

PROVISION FOR TRAINING.

Provision for the training of teachers is a prominent feature of the French system of education.

For the service of primary instruction the state maintains two superior normal schools, one at St. Cloud, designed to prepare professors for the primary normal schools for men, and a corresponding school for women at Fontenay-aux-Roses; also the normal school Pape-Carpantier at Versailles for the training of directresses of infant schools.

Moreover every department is obliged by law to maintain at least two normal schools, one for the training of masters and the other for mistresses of primary schools. With a single exception, every department has established one or more normal schools for masters; the total number in 1887-88 being 90, with an enrollment of 5,443 pupils, and 1,709 graduates at the close of the year. The normal schools for mistresses number 81, with 3,544 students in 1887-88 and 1,118 graduates.

PROFESSORS OF SECONDARY AND SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION.

Qualifications and appointment.-The professors of secondary and of superior instruction belong alike to the professional corps of the université, differing from each other for the time being by virtue of the rank which they have achieved.

Their classification and designation illustrate the precision of the official grading and at the same time suggest successive steps in the

historic development of the service. Two titles, professor and agrégé, are common to secondary and superior institutions. Agrégés, as the word indicates, have been added to the professional body as originally instituted, for reasons that will appear hereafter. While bearing the same titles, professors and agrégés of secondary instruction do not rank as high in the université as the corresponding members of the facultés either in respect to salaries or to scholastic recognition.

Professors of the lycées are full (i. e., titulaires) or divisional, the latter being in charge of a division of a class.

A professor must have a university degree; for the lycées, at least the bachelor's degree. A professor in a faculté must have the doctor's degree of that order. The title agrégé does not, like a degree, indicate the completion of a course of study, but the mastery of a particular branch; thus there are agrégés in philosophy, history, mathematics, literature, chemistry, anatomy, and physiology.

Candidates for the agrégation must have the doctor's degree, and must pass a competitive examination, the nature of which is determined by the class of agrégation to which they aspire. The agrégés rank immediately after the full professors; they may assist in examinations conducted by the professors and may replace them in their absence. No person is eligible to this position unless he is twenty-five years of age. The minister can authorize the agrégés, on recommendation of the dean of a faculté, supported by the rector of the académie, to open complementary courses; that is, private courses, additional to the regular courses in the locality of the faculté to which they belong.

The agrégés are the only class of assistants included in the facultés of law and of medicine. The facultés of science and of letters include also assistauts termed chargés de cours, and instructors who are called maîtres de conférences. The last named class of assistants was instituted by a decree of 1877. They are intended to supplement the lessons of the professors by instruction of a far more detailed and personal character, conducted by means of questions and explanations after the manner of recitations in American colleges.

These instructors are appointed by the minister for one year, but their appointments can be indefinitely renewed. In addition to professors and agrégés the teaching force of the lycées includes assistants assigned to special duties and tutors called maîtres répétiteurs.

Professors of lycées are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction. Maîtres répétiteurs of the lycées and certain professors in the communal secondary schools are appointed by the minister upon the recommendation of academic rectors.

Full professors of the facultés are appointed by the President of the Republic upon the proposition of the minister of public instruction, who makes his choice from two lists, one presented by the council of the faculté in which the vacancy occurs, and the other by the permanent section of the superior council.

Salaries-secondary instruction.-In respect to the salaries of profes sors and officers of the lycées, special provisions have been made for Paris and Lyons. In the former, the principals (proviseurs) receive $1,800; in the latter, and throughout the departments, with these exceptions, the salaries are as follows:

In the lycée of Versailles, and in the department of the Seine, the censeurs, i. e., officers charged with the general conduct of studies and discipline, receive a salary of $1,600. In the remaining lycées their salaries are as follows:

The salaries of chaplains are also greater at Versailles and in the department of the Seine than elsewhere; in the two former they range from $700 to $900 for head chaplains, and from $520 to $680 for subordinate chaplains. In the remaining lycées they range from $400 to $520. The fixed salaries of stewards range from $800 to $1,600. The salaries of the members of the teaching corps are as follows:

Salaries of professors of superior instruction.-The full professors of the Paris facultés are divided into two classes, the first receiving a salary of $3,000 and the second $2,400.

In the faculté of protestant theology the professors of the first class receive a salary of $1,600, and those of the second $1,300.