In the superior school of pharmacy the professors of the first class receive $2,200, and those of the second class $1,800.

The professors of facultés of the departments receive annual salaries as follows:

The deans receive extra compensation, amounting to $600 in Paris, and $200 elsewhere.

COURSES OF STUDY.

Primary schools-The course of study for primary schools prescribed by the law of March 28, 1882, comprises the following branches: Moral and civic instruction, reading, writing, the elements of arithmetic and the metric system, history and geography, especially of France; object lessons, and the first notions of science, elements of design, of singing, manual work (needlework in the schools for girls), gymnastic exercises, and in the schools for boys military drill.

In the superior primary schools these branches of instruction are reviewed and more fully developed. The course is extended to include algebra and geometry; natural science and physics, and their applications to agriculture, to industrial arts and to hygiene; political economy, French language and literature, general history, industrial and commercial geography, iron and wood work for boys, and cutting and fitting for girls. One foreign language is also included. Additional courses pertaining to local industries may be authorized by the minister upon the demand of local committees supported by the academic inspector and approved by the departmental council.

Normal schools.-In the primary (i. e., departmental) normal schools, the studies of the primary course are reviewed with reference to methods of instruction, and at the same time developed to include the full scope and scholastic bearing of those subjects. Pedagogy and school administration are treated both theoretically and practically. In the division of the day, eight hours are allowed for sleep and about five for eating, recreation, toilet, etc. Of the hours reserved for scholastic duties five at least are to be devoted to the preparation of studies, exercises, and to practical work. The hours of instruction in each week do not exceed twenty-five in the schools for men and twenty-two in the schools for women. Of this time, in both normal schools for men and for women, five hours a week are given to literary instruction the first year, three hours the second, and two the third year. The rest of the time is devoted to the instruction in science and in design.

Instruction in the following subjects is given outside the regular class hours: in the normal schools for men, agricultural and manual work, military and gymnastic exercises, vocal and instrumental music; in the

normal schools for women, needle-work, housework and gardening, gymnastics, and vocal and instrumental music. The course of study in these schools covers three years. An entrance examination is required, to which no one is admitted who has not obtained the lowest grade teacher's certificate (brevet élémentaire). Upon the completion of the course, students must present themselves for the examination for the higher grade certificate (brevet supérieur).

Secondary courses.1-Courses of secondary study are of three general classes. The full classical course leading to the degree of bachelor of letters or bachelor of science, received its present form from the decrees of March 24, 1865, and January 22, 1885. The other two are the course of special secondary instruction created by the law of July 21, 1865, which leads to the diploma of bachelor of special secondary instruction, and the course of secondary instruction for girls, as constituted by the law of December 21, 1880, and subsequent modifications of the same.2

1 This statement gives the composition of secondary courses up to August 8, 1890. On that day, a decree issued by the President of the Republic established a single bachelor's degree in place of the degrees of Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of Sciences, and limited degree of Bachelor of Sciences. As the courses of the lycées are intended to prepare students for the examinations leading to this degree, this change will naturally cause some modification in the plan of studies.

The prescribed studies for the two last classes of the classical course will suffice for comparison with typical courses in the United States. The following conspectus gives in an abridged form the official programme for the classes of rhetoric and philosophy, and for the special mathematical course which may be substituted for these classes or entered the year preceding the stage of rhetoric.

CLASS OF RHETORIC. (AGE SIXTEEN YEARS.)

French.-Four hours a week. Eleven authors of XVII, XVIII, and XIX centuries. Fifteen lessons on the history of French literature from the time of Louis XIII. Latin.-Four hours a week. Portions of Terence, Lucretius, Virgil, Horace, Cicero,

Livy, and Tacitus.

Greek.-Four hours a week. Portions of Homer, Sophocles, Aristophanes, Plato, and Demosthenes.

German or English.-Two hours a week. Authors in English-Shakspeare, Wash. ington Irving, Byron, Tennyson, Dickens, and George Eliot.

History. Two hours a week. History of Europe, and particularly of France, from 1610 to 1789.

Geography.-One hour a week. Physical, political, administrative, and economic geography of France and its colonies.

Geometry and Cosmography.-Two hours a week. Solid geometry finished-through the sphere. The celestial sphere. Earth, sun, time, moon, eclipses, planets, stars, universal gravitation, tides.

Chemstry. Two hours a week first half year. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, and their most important combinations. General notions of the metals, oxides, and salts. Principal organie compounds. Nomenclature and notation.

Drawing.-The human head from nature.

CLASS OF PHILOSOPHY.

Landscape from prints and nature. (AGE SEVENTEEN YEARS.)

Psychology, Logic, Ethics, and Metaphysics.-Nine hours a week, of which eight hours are for the general course and two French authors, and one hour for one Latin

The full classical course covers seven years, following an elementary course of three years, in which the studies are substantially those of the primary schools, with the addition of Latin and the exclusion of manual training.

The special secondary course, which is intended for students who contemplate a commercial or industrial career, covers six years. This course affords also the means of coördination between primary and secondary instruction, pupils from the elementary primary schools being admitted and one Greek author. The two French anthors are chosen each year from a list containing works of Descartes, Malebranche, Pascal, Leibnitz, Condillac, and Cousin. The course includes an account of sensibility, intelligence, and volition, of formal and applied logic, of conscience and duty, of family and country, of political duties, of labor, capital, and property, of immortality and natural religion. History. Two hours a week. Contemporary history, 1789 to 1875.

Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry.--Four hours a week. Review of the whole course in these subjects.

Physics. Two hours a week. Optics. Applications of physics: Steam-engines, magneto-electric machines, electro-plating, telephone.

Physiology, Animal and Vegetable.-Two hours a week. Nutrition, organs of sense, voice, apparatus for movement, nerves. Vegetable nutrition and reproduction. Drawing. Two hours a week. Same as in the preceding year.

SPECIAL MATHEMATICAL COURSE.

PREPARATORY CLASS OF MATHEMATICS. (AGE, FIFTEEN OR SIXTEEN.)

Mathematics-Ten hours a week. Arithmetic through proportion. Algebra through equations of the second degree. Geometry: Plane and solid. Cosmography: Same as class of rhetoric.

Natural History.-One hour a week. Zoology: Man, vertebrates, articulates, mollusks. Botany: Analysis and classification of plants, divisions of the vegetable kingdom by typical specimens. Geology: The principal rocks, changes of the earth's crust, geologic periods. Physiology: Animal and vegetable, as in the class of philosophy.

Language.-Seven hours. Review of previous work in French, Latin, German, or

English.

History and Geography.-Four hours. Review of work of class of rhetoric and preceding class.

Drawing and Design.-Four hours.

Gymnastics.-Two hours.

Religion. Optional.

CLASS OF ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS. (AGES SIXTEEN OR SEVENTEEN YEARS.)

Mathematics.-Ten hours a week. Arithmetic: review of previous work with more varied applications. Algebra: equations of the second degree, properties of trinomials of the second degree, maxima and minima, theory and applications of logarithms. Solid geometry. Conic sections and the helix. Descriptive geometry. Plane trigonometry. Cosmography: review of course of class of rhetoric, with extension.

Science. Six hours a week. Mechanics, physics, chemistry.

Languages.-Seven hours a week, viz: French, three; Latin, two; English or German, two. French: Grammar and composition. Authors: Bossuet, Voltaire, Boilean, La Fontaine, classical plays. Latin: Carsar's Gallic War; Cicero, three orations; Virgil, Eclogues, and three books of the Eneid; Horace's Satires. German: Selections, prose and verse; Lessing's Laocoon; Schiller, two dramas; Thirty Years' War; Goethe, ED 89-9

to it if they are prepared in everything but the living languages. Their deficiency in this respect is made up in special classes.

Stu

The course of secondary instruction for girls covers five years. dents who complete three years of the course and pass the required examination receive a partial diploma, and those who go through the whole course are candidates for the full diploma.

The composition of these several courses and the distribution of the entire time among the different subjects are as follows:

Full classical course-Seven years (ages 11 to 18).

Students who desire, may substitute for the last two or three years of the classical course the special mathematical course, which leads to the degree of Bachelor of Science. In these classes, 36 per cent. of the time is given to mathematics, and 16 per cent. to the sciences.

Courses of special secondary instruction-seven years (ages 12 to 18).

Iphigénie; Hermann et Dorothée. English: Macaulay, essays; Sheridan, The School

for Scandal; Sheakespeare, three plays; Milton, Paradise Lost, two books.

History and Geography.-Three hours a week. Same as course of classes of rhetoric and philosophy.

Drawing and Design.-Four hours a week.

Gymnastics. Two hours a week.

Religion.-Optional.

Following the class of elementary mathematics is the class of special mathematics. The course for this class, which is too elaborate to be reproduced here, is determined by the admission requirements of the Polytechnic School and the Superior Normal School. With the exception of a brief review of the previous work in literature, with extension of the course in English or German, the time is entirely devoted to mathematics, mechanics, physics, and chemistry.

Students who complete the first two years of the special course of mathematics are candidates for the diploma of bachelor of science; but if they have this end in view they must add to the subjects specified the assigned work in philosophy. This includes elements of logic and ethics, and occupies one hour a week.

Courses of superior instruction.-The composition of the courses of superior instruction is determined by the purposes to which they are directed; they are either general, that is for liberal culture; or special, that is designed to prepare students for law, medicine, engineering, professorships, etc.

Side by side with the traditional university studies, these courses show large and constantly increasing development in pure and applied science, in philosophy, and in political and social science. This increase has been promoted by the creation of complementary courses and conférences, to which reference has already been made. The former, as the word indicates, provide for subjects not included in the titulary chairs. Thus, as M. Liard explains, "in a faculté where there is only one chair of philosophy, a course of the history of philosophy would be complementary." They afford opportunity for students to extend their researches in particular lines under the guidance of specialists, while the conférences serve to reiterate and enforce the subject matter of the regular courses.

ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS.

Classification and description of primary schools.-The department of primary instruction, as organized by the law of October 30, 1886, comprises infant schools and classes, elementary primary schools, superior primary schools, and schools of manual apprenticeship. The line of separation between these different classes of schools and the division. among them of the prescribed subjects of primary instruction are determined by special regulations elaborated in the superior council of public instruction. All of these schools are free and secular, and the teachers must in all cases be appointed from the laity. The law with respect to compulsory attendance applies only to the elementary primary schools.

1. Infant schools (écoles maternelles) and infant classes: In the infant schools, children of both sexes from two to six years of age receive together physical, moral, and intellectual training adapted to their tender years. These schools are wholly in the charge of women; the teaching force includes a directress, and an assistant if the number of children is more than fifty. The teachers are always aided by a sewing woman.