schools are boarding-schools-that is, the students live in the school building, and are kept under rigid control all day long. The following is a daily programme adhered to in a Prussian normal school: 6 o'clock A. M., rising; 6:30 till 7:30, preparing lessons under supervision; 7:30 till 7:50, breakfast; 7:50 till 8, religious exercises in chapel; 8 till 1, five or six lessons in experimental teaching; 1 till 1:30, dinner; 1:30 till 2, playing and walking in the grounds; 2 till 5, lessons in the academic department; 5 till 6, practice in instrumental music; 6 till 7, exercises out doors and gymnastics; 7 till 7:30, supper; 7:30 till 9:30 working and studying in class rooms under supervision; 9:50 till 10, evening prayer; 10, hour for retiring.

Examinations.-Previous to entering a normal school, many students pass a year or two in a preparatory school, but this is not obligatory. They may acquire their previous education anywhere. The state, being at times unable to secure a sufficient number of students, pays a premium to teachers of good repute who prepare boys for the normal schools. There is a rigid examination for admission. At the close of the course a still more rigid examination precedes graduation. A student rarely fails to graduate, the government having taken the responsibility for his professional education. But the authorities grade the diplomas I, Ia, II, IIb, III, and IV. A teacher whose diploma numbers IV is not likely ever to obtain a lucrative position. This marking or grading of the diplomas is analogous to the issuing of diplomas in this country for one, two, three, or more years. A graduate of good standing finds a place as teacher without difficulty. He spends two years in active work in the school room and then presents himself for his final examination (the "repetition" examination). If he passes that he is free from further examinations and is recognized as a professional teacher all over the empire. There is, however, little chance for him to be appointed to secondary schools, except occasionally in the lowest grades. The teachers and professors in the middle and high schools are nearly all university men. All normal school examinations are conducted by the faculty in the presence of a provincial school councillor. It is a postulate of the Prussian, and in fine, of the German Government, that the teacher is a servant or officer of the state, and as such must receive his training from the state.

Prussia had in 1887 in round numbers 75,000 teachers in the people's schools, of whom 10.6 per cent. were women, 89.4 per cent. men.

Appointment. The appointment of teachers is not regulated by a general law. The power of electing the teachers is vested in communal school authorities where such authorities exist. In country places the circuit (kreis) authorities perform this function, but whether elected by city authorities, or appointed by circuit inspectors, or chosen by patrons, the selection is subject to the confirmation of the representative of the government, be he the representative of the county, provincial, or state government, as the case may be. It must always be

borne in mind that the Prussian governmental edifice is not a structure built on virgin soil as in America, where no historical obstacles obstructed the building, but a very complicated structure, which had to accommodate itself to existing circumstances and historical obstacles; hence the seemingly irregular mode of procedure in teachers' appointments. In the main the principle is adhered to, that the local authorities nominate the teachers and the government confirms or rejects the nomination.

The legal and social position of the teacher is much better defined in Prussia than in many other countries. He receives a pension after having taught a certain number of years, and his widow and orphans are entitled to support, though this support rarely amounts to more than one-half of the teacher's salary. By means of coöperation the teachers of every German state have founded insurance, coöperative, and other societies for mutual aid-societies which, in a measure, supplement the measures of the state.

Salaries. The last official school report of Prussia, that for 1887, states the average salary of the teachers in the people's or elementary schools to be as follows:

This shows a decrease in eight years of eighteen dollars in the kingdom and of thirty-three dollars in the cities. These salaries are comparatively smaller than in America, but it must be remembered that the teachers in Prussia have no rent to pay, as they live in dwellings attached to the schoolhouses. Calculating the rent at 20 per cent., the average salary may be considered to be $340. The salaries of rectors (principals) of large elementary schools in cities are higher. The teachers and profes sors of middle and high schools are not included in the averages mentioned above; their salaries range much higher than the foregoing averages.1

VI. THE SCHOOLS.

School age and compulsory attendance.-The legal school age is from the sixth (completed) to the fourteenth (completed) year. There are, however, exceptions in regard to the maximum limit. Confirmation in the Protestant church or first communion in the Catholic church termi

The salaries of teachers, compared with what is paid for similar service in our own country, are small, but when we remember that the purchasing power of money is far greater in Germany than it is here, that the salaries in all professions are low, that the tenure of office of the teacher is very strong, and that liberal government aid is given to the teacher in case of a disability and to his family in the event of his death, we can well understand why the profession of teaching calls to it the highest talent and most profound learning which a highly civilized state can produce. [J. T. Prince, agent Massachusetts Board of Education].

nates attendance; hence children in rural districts frequently leave school at the completion of the thirteenth year. Attendance in school is compulsory. This compulsion, distasteful as it may seem to citizens of a republic, has become a leading feature of the foremost European nations. In Germany it is adopted in all the states without exception. School attendance is insured by long habit and tradition. "The idea of compulsory attendance has taken so deep a root in the country, that it forms one of the most ordinary conceptions of the people" (C. C. Perry). More than a hundred and fifty years ago the government insisted upon regular attendance, and through the enforcement of ministerial orders it had become almost a habit with the people, so that the framers of the constitution (submitted to the King and sworn to by him in 1850) could safely introduce the compulsory attendance clause.

This compulsion refers only to elementary instruction from the age of six to that of fourteen, and does not apply to those receiving instruction in other than the people's schools; temporary absences for valid reasons may be granted, which reasons are very similar in all the states. Applications for permanent exemption, however, are relatively rare, for there are comparatively few private schools and very little private tuition; the children of the higher strata of society are taught generally, when not at primary schools, in preparatory schools attached to the high schools. Default in attendance is punishable by fine or imprisonment, but the latter is rare. If parents are found unable to govern their children, the state takes care of the latter in reformatory institutions.

The percentage of absence is variously estimated at between 3 and 10 per cent., never more. No special law exists against child labor in factories, for the compulsory attendance law meets such cases effectively. School terms and length of sessions.-The school year begins at Easter, and commonly lasts from forty-five to forty-six weeks. Vacations are at Easter (one week), at Whitsuntide (one week), at Christmas (one week), and at harvest time (three or four weeks). The daily sessions last six hours, from 8 till 12 and 2 till 4; or from 8 till 1 and 3 till 4; or from 8 till 2. There is no whole holiday on Saturday as in this country, but the schools are closed Wednesday and Saturday afternoons.

Schoolhouses.-The schoolhouses in Prussia, judged from an American standpoint, are insignificant looking and incommodious, but in the cities great progress has been made in school architecture. Forty-one million marks (about $10,000,000) were expended in 1886-87 for the erection and improvement of buildings for elementary schools. Most schoolhouses in cities are of recent origin, as is seen from the following statement:

From 1874 till 1882, 5,975 new buildings were erected and 2,710 buildings were enlarged, at a total cost of 117,000,000 marks ($29,250,000). From 1883 till 1886, 3,977 new buildings were erected and 3,975 buildings were enlarged, at a total cost of 104,000,000 ($26,000,000).

Eighty-seven per cent. of the cost of erection was defrayed by the communities, 13 by the state.

The seatings are not single desks and chairs, but long benches and desks attached. The normal number of pupils to the teacher varies between 70 and 80, and even at that rate the number of buildings and teachers is not sufficient; hence the authorities resort to half-day schools. According to the official report, 2,604,874 out of 4,838,247, or about 54 per cent., are seated in classes of not more than 75 each; while 2,233,373, or about 46 per cent., are seated in overcrowded schoolrooms. The report mentioned states that there are:

Totai, 2,233,373 children in overcrowded schoolrooms.

Apparatus.-Generally the schools are well supplied with all neces sary apparatus, such as charts, maps, models, simple instruments, objects of natural history, etc. In this respect the schools in Germany are furnished better than the average school in America. Many schools have a little museum and library. All of this is easily understood if we remember that in Germany teaching is a profession.

Hygienic precautions.-The school authorities insist upon certain precautionary measures, such as vaccination certificates and occasional visits from physicians; the German school, being subject to a centralized government, is more thoroughly precautionary than in this country. In time of epidemics schools are dismissed by the local authorities on short notice.

VII.-INSTRUCTION.

Course of study.-The course of study in elementary schools embraces religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, singing, drawing, natural history, natural science, history of man. No text-books are used for natural history, natural science, or history of man; this instruction is oral. While in arithmetic, it may be said, the German schools are less proficient than the American, their course of study is more comprehensive than the average American course, and the advancement made in Germany in nearly all the studies is more rapid than in America. This fact is easily accounted for by (a) the difficult spelling of the English language; (b) the efforts made in learning and applying the tables of our arbitrary measures and weights; (c) the greater length of school sessions and terms; and (d) the want of a profession of teaching in this country, and consequent lack of proper teaching. These are the most important

causes.

Germany is very rich in text-books. In no country is a greater variety of text-books published than in Germany, and though this may

seem a disadvantage, its advantages preponderate. It secures greater variety in teaching and a very beneficial and healthy competition among schools and especially teachers. Of course the children of a school and of a community are required to use the same books.

Methods of teaching.-It would be utterly impossible without writing a book to make a comprehensive statement concerning the methods of instruction used in Germany. Suffice it to say, there is no undue prominence given to the memory. Very little is learned by heart or by rote. The first object of the teacher is to make his pupils observe things, comprehend facts, and to lead them from stage to stage, so as to keep up an eager interest. Hon. Samuel Smith, of England, in his report on the German schools says:

I saw no signs of weariness or apathy among either teachers or scholars. The teaching was all viva voce, the teacher always standing beside the black-board and illustrating his subject by object lessons. The instruction was through the eye and hand as well as the ear, and question and answer succeed so sharply as to keep the whole class on the qui vive.

There is absolutely no compulsion in the selection of methods. Every teacher has the greatest possible liberty in the selection of the methods of teaching. No inspector (or superintendent) prescribes methods; all he would dare to do is to suggest improvements here and there. Since the state attends to the professional training of the teachers, it can safely leave teachers to their own devices, trusting in their professional spirit and ambition.

The branches of study.-Religion: This instruction is nonsectarian in character, but Protestant, Catholic, and Israelites are, as much as possible, taught in separate schools. Where they attend mixed schools they are separated during the lesson in religion. It must be remembered that in Prussia church and state are not separated as in America; hence the prominence given to religious instruction. Biblical history, catechism with Bible verses, memorizing of hymns, essential points of religious ethics and the creed, are what the public schools are required to teach. Language and reading: Familiarity with the mother tongue and a limited knowledge of German literature are, broadly speaking, the sum total of attainable results. Penmanship and drawing: As a rule the penmanship of the pupils is commendable. In drawing particularly rapid progress has been made of late. The exercises chiefly consist of ornamental drawing and form studies. In the higher grades drawing of solids and modelling is practiced. Arithmetic: This study is less extended than in American schools, but very

1 From statistics of 1886-87: Of 3,063,000 Protestant children 2,919,000 attended exclusively Protestant schools; 26,000 attended Catholic schools; 118,000 mixed schools.

Of 1,730,000 Catholic children 1,528,000 attended exclusively Catholic schools; 55,000 attended Protestant schools, and 93,000 mixed schools. There were 13,249 Jewish children in 318 separate schools, which were also attended by 21 Christian children. ED 89-11