Among the continental schools in Europe there seem to be, to the careful observer, two trends noticeable: one the Germanic, the other the Romanic. The former insists upon thorough discipline of mind and body and the fostering of a deep religious and moral sense, and in order to facilitate this, the following are considered necessary: (a) consideration for the feelings of all citizens in religious matters; (b) local government, including regulation of religious instruction (subject to the protection of minorities); (c) direct local taxation, expenditure and administrative details; (d) religion, subject to certain conscience clause provisions, considered the basis of instruction; (e) compulsory attendance; f) thorough qualification of all teachers for private as well as for public schools; (g) recognition of the importance of gymnastic exercises.

The special features of the Romanic trend are: (a) the natural eager intention to render the system as perfect as possible, and in as short a time as possible; (b) in pursuance of that intention munificent expenditure upon public instruction is made; (c) the absence of any religious instruction is a marked characteristic, but the system endeavors to be absolutely neutral in, and not hostile to, religion; (d) special attention is paid to industrial training; (e) the organization of infant schools is very complete; (f) the state far more absolutely than elsewhere controls the complete education of the people.

XI-THE SCHOOLS OF HUNGARY.

A few facts concerning the Hungarian schools should be added to complete the exposition of the German schools, for the Hungarian schools are to a great extent organized like the schools in Germany and Austria.

In 1888 Hungary had 2,416,945 children of school age, 6 to 15 years. Of these only 1,950,879, or 80.73 per cent., attended elementary schools, namely, 1,750,013 between 6 and 12 years of age, and 666,932 between 12 and 15 years of age. Here is an instructive comparison:

The number of schools has in accordance with this increase grown amazingly. The following comparison may show this:

The normal schools have shared in this general forward movement, as is seen from these numbers:

The infant schools are well organized, as is seen from the following:

Count Csáky, the new minister of education in Hungary, considers it his duty to regulate the affairs of preschoiastic institutions, such as kindergarten, infant schools, etc. In his first report, just issued, he expresses his determination to establish elementary schools wherever the communities fail in so doing, and he urges that the salaries and pensions of teachers be regulated by law.

Among the new steps he has taken, we mention an order according to which courses have been arranged for female teachers in normal schools, also courses for training professors for secondary schools, so that henceforth the graduates of universities who wish to devote themselves to teaching may obtain their professional training before entering upon their duties.

The salaries of teachers have hitherto been paid irregularly. The minister insists upon it that they be paid promptly. Also in regard to the chaos prevailing in Hungarian schools in the use of text-books he promises wholesome changes.

Since the passage of the present school law in 1869, the number of schools has increased 2,824. Hungary has now 16,622 schools, among which are 16,301 elementary, 74 advanced, 13 girls' schools, 159 citizens' schools. The state supports only 738 schools, communities 1,880, the religious congregations 13,783; 202 were private schools; 10,712 towns or villages have their own schools, 1,783 have joined others in so-called combined schools, and 300 settlements or villages have no school at all. Of 1,000 German children of school age in Hungary, 907 were in school; of 1,000 Slavonians, 850; of 1,000 Magyars, 842; of 1,000 Croatians, 858; of 1,000 Servians, 802; of 1,000 Ruthenians, 675; of 1,000 Roumanians, 622. The number of teachers increased from 17,782 in 1869, to 24,148 in 1887. At present there are 71.72 children to the teacher. Of the 24,188 teachers, 3,133 (or 13 per cent.) have no certificate. The number of women teachers has increased 340 per cent. since 1869. There are at present 71 normal schools (46 in 1869); of these 25 were state schools, 46 confessional schools; 53 were for men, 17 for women.

XII.-SECONDARY SCHOOLS AMONG GERMAN-SPEAKING NATIONS.

Variety in organization and scope.-The lower schools of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, as well as of Hungary, are, as has been stated before, not common schools in the sense in which that term is understood in the United States, free of charge and common to all, but of a variety of types. This differentiation is even more pronounced in the higher schools. The variety found among them is so great that it puzzles the collector of statistics who has to classify them. Switzerland, wedged in between monarchies, has to accommodate itself to demands made by society, hence we find even there a great variety of schools, though not as confused as in Germany and Austria.

Bürgerschulen (citizens' schools), höhere mädchenschulen, progymnasia, gymnasia, realschulen, realgymnasia, prorealgymnasia are the public high schools. This array of technical terms is difficult to render in English. A verbal translation would be misleading, and a labored circumlocution useless. These secondary schools may be grouped into middle and high schools. The citizens' school, girls' academy, and the progymnasium (which is a gymnasium with incomplete course) may be classed among the middle schools. The gymnasium, realschule (with complete course), and the realgymnasium are the high schools. The gymnasium is the oldest of all secondary schools, and is the Latin school of the Middle Ages. It is the classical boys' school par excellence. The realschule (the first one was established 140 years ago) substitutes modern languages for the classics, and bestows much attention upon natural sciences, mathematics, and industrial drawing and designing. The gymnasium prepares for the learned professions, the realschule trains engineers, surveyors, artists, civil officers, etc. The realgymnasium is a combination of both kinds of schools, and found nearly always where a community can not support two secondary schools. From the charts (see pp. 173-6) the differences existing between the courses of these schools may be gleaned better than from verbal explanation. The great army of business men is recruited from these higher and from the middle schools. The boy of the people's school has a hard time of it in courting success in the higher walks of life; still such cases are by no means wanting.

Statistics of secondary schools in Prussia.-In 1889, Germany had 418 gymnasia (or classical schools), namely, Prussia, 266; Bavaria, 35; Saxony, 17; Würtemberg, Baden, 14; Hessen, 7; MecklenburgSchwerin, 7; Braunschweig, 6; Oldenburg, 5; Anhalt 4; Saxe-Weimar, 3; Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 3; Alsace-Lorraine, 16; the other German principalities, 1 or 2 each. These institutions are distributed over the empire very irregularly, as is seen from the following figures: While in Saxony 187,000 inhabitants support 1 gymnasium, there is 1 to every 133,000 inhabitants in Würtemberg; 1 to every 114,000 inhabitants in Baden; 1 to 107,000 in Prussia; 1 to 100,000 inhabitants in Alsace

Lorraine. In other parts of the empire 60,000 and even 33,000 inhabitants support and maintain a gymnasium. In 1889, Germany had 54 progymnasia (6 years' instead of 8 years' course). Of these, 40 were found in Prussia.

The number of realgymnasia was 133 in 1889. Of these Prussia had 90; Saxony, 10; Bavaria, 5; Hessen, 4, etc. There were, besides these, 106 real progymnasia, and 15 upper realschulen. These schools are found chiefly in Prussia, namely, 84 real-progymnasia and 10 upper realschulen. These two kinds of schools do not differ materially in aims and scope. The number of realschulen and higher citizens' schools in 1889 was 154. These two kinds of schools do not differ much, either. Of these 154 schools, Prussia had only 39, while Bavaria had 33; Saxony, 20; Hessen, 14; Baden, 11; Alsace-Lorraine, 10; Würtemberg, 10; the other states, 17. To these different classes of secondary schools. should be added 87 public and private institutions, which it is difficult to classify. Hence, the entire number of acknowledged secondary schools in Germany in 1889 was 976. Before long Germany will have a thousand high schools that are high schools in fact, as well as in

name.

In all the South German states and in Alsace-Lorraine secondary instruction is exclusively the state's concern. Communal gymnasia, realschulen, and higher citizens' schools are not found in Bavaria, Würtemberg, Baden, and Hessen, nor in Alsace-Lorraine. In Prussia, the majority of gymnasia are state schools, but there are still a number of municipal schools of that kind. Their number decreases, however, every year, since the state takes hold of them as its means increase. Nearly all the other schools, that is, those which depart from mere classical learning and emphasize scientific and mathematical studies, and particularly modern languages, are municipal institutions. Thus it appears that, in Prussia the state fosters classical, the city, modern education.

The salaries of teachers in the high schools of Germany are highest in wealthy cities: Hamburg (maximum, $2,160), Lubeck (maximum, $1,575), Anhalt (maximum, $1,500), Frankfort (maximum, $1,540), Berlin (maximum, $1,500). The pensions paid to teachers in high schools are highest in Bavaria, Hessen, Würtemberg, Saxe-Weimar, and others of the small principalities.

The following data are interesting: In Bavaria the pension amounts. to 70 per cent. of the salary after 10 years of service, 80 per cent. of the salary after 25 years of service, 90 per cent. of salary after the 40 years of service, 100 per cent. of the salary after 50 years of service. In Hessen 50 per cent. of the salary after 10 years of service, 72.5 per cent. of the salary after 25 years of service, 90 per cent. of the salary after 40 years of service. In Saxony 333 per cent. of the salary after 10 years of service, 41.5 per cent. of the salary after 25 years of service, 70 per cent. of the salary after 40 years of service. In Saxony

the government has released the cities from contributing to the pen. sion fund and intends to assume all paying of pensions to teachers. An increase in the schools is confidently expected.

Stimulus for higher education of boys.-When we consider the fact that Prussia with 28,000,000 inhabitants has 356,912 pupils in secondary schools, it is obvious that some powerful stimulus to higher education must exist in that country. Mere love of learning would not adequately account for the high percentage of youths seeking a higher intellectual plane. The motive is found in the fact that, by governmental decree, students who have passed through a six years' high school course are entitled to an abbreviation of their military service from three years to one year. Hence, continuing his studies till he reaches the "secunda" (the class below the graduating class), the youth secures not only a better education generally, but shortens his service in the army by two years. This system of artificially inducing the young men of the country to stay in school longer than they would otherwise do has been in existence for over 30 years; it has proven beyond doubt the most effective inducement for higher education, though it has its bitter opponents, and lately the government is contemplating its abolishment because the number of young men with a secondary education is so rapidly increasing that all the learned professions are overcrowded with candidates, and a new social species is being developed, that of "educated paupers."

Graduates.-Prussia furnishes some instructive data concerning the number and choice of occupation of graduates of gymnasia or classical schools.

In 1889 266 gymnasia conducted examinations for graduation; 4,251 pupils signified their willingness to submit to the examination, but shortly before the day arrived 307 withdrew from the contest, and 93 were refused admission by the faculty, reasons not stated. Of the remaining 3,851 who were examined, 3,702 passed, 149 failed. Six of those who passed were less than 17 years old; 98 were 17; 579 were 18; 972 were 19; 959 were 20; 1,088 were 21 or more. Six hundred and sixteen of the graduates went to universities to study Protestant theology, 326 Catholic theology, 12 Hebrew theology; 703 went to study law; 29 political economy; 873 medicine; 210 philology and philosophy; 109 mathematics and natural sciences. Some, especially the youngest ones, had not decided what course of study to pursue. Two hundred and thirty-nine went to military academies with the view to entering the army; 110 will devote themselves to civil engineering; 33 to mining engineering; 270 intend to enter forestry, postal, and state civil service; 130 will go to farming, commerce, and industrial pursuits; 37 to other callings.

Austria had in 1889 172 gymnasia (classical schools for boys) with 55,404 students, 85 realschulen (modern high schools for boys) with 18,545 students; 178 of these secondary schools were supported ex