few cases it is similar to the higher elementary grades. In other cases pupils are prepared to pass an examination for the position of teacher. Normal school courses cover religion, morals, pedagogy, Italian language, and rules of composition, geography, national history, arithmetic and elements of geometry, principles of natural and physical sciences, elements of hygiene, calligraphy, linear drawing, and singing. Women are taught feminine handiwork; men have military exercises and gymnastics.

Secondary education.-The course of study in the ginnasi and licei extends through eight years; the first five in the ginnasio, then three in the liceo. The gymnasial studies are Italian, Latin, Greek, arithmetic, history, and geography, and the elements of instruction in Roman and Greek archæology. The studies of the liceo tend toward a higher development, for they cover philosophy, mathematics, physics and elements of chemistry, Italian, Roman, and Greek literature, history, and geography and natural history. Drawing and modern languages are optional branches. Gymnastics are obligatory if the student desires to be admitted to the examinations. The "licenza ginnasiale," or graduation diploma from the ginnasio, is required for a number of employ ments under government. The "licenza liceale," or graduation diploma from the "liceo" is required for admission to the university.

The technical schools, which are for boys between ten and fourteen years of age, have a less advanced course of study. In the three years' course the studies to be pursued are Italian and French, history-ancient and modern-geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, the ele ments of natural and physical sciences, and the rights and duties of citizenship. The examination for graduation includes all the studies of the course.

In the technical institutes there are five divisions of study, the branches being grouped under the physico-mathematical section, the agronomic, the commercial, the mathematical, and industrial. Each of these courses is to have two years in general, and two for special studies. In the first year the studies are in common, and cover Italian language and literature, French, geography, history, mathematics, and drawing. Italian is continued throughout the course. Other studies common to all courses are physics, general chemistry, natural history, the duties and rights of citizenship, and the science of economics. Then there are special branches for the different sections, the needs of the locality where the institute is situated being taken into account. The physicomathematical section qualifies pupils for the faculty of physics, mathematics, and natural sciences in the university, for such special schools as the higher schools of agriculture, commerce, and for the naval school at Genoa. The diploma of graduation from other courses fits one for a career as surveyor, bookkeeper, or for an industrial pursuit.

The university faculties are jurisprudence; letters and philosophy; mathematics, physical and natural sciences; medicine and surgery, and

schools of pharmacy. The free universities have no faculty of letters and philosophy. The institutes for higher studies have three faculties: Letters and philosophy; physics, mathematics, and natural sciences; medicine and surgery, and schools of pharmacy.

Courses of study in the special schools vary, as under this head are classed agricultural schools, schools of mines, industrial and commercial schools, institutes for the study of fine arts and for music.

VII-SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

The management of elementary schools is left to munincipal authorities, or to special committees chosen from the communal councillors. Their business is to see that the admission of pupils is properly made, and they are expected to visit the schools and see that the prescribed laws and regulations are carried out. Schools for girls are subject to the inspection of women inspectors who report to the provincial supervisor of studies.

Promotions take place in elementary grades at the end of six months, provided the oral and written examinations are successfully passed. The examinations are conducted by the teachers in the lower grade schools; in the upper grades teachers from other divisions are chosen. Text-books are ordered by the school authorities, but in secondary grades, at least, the professor is allowed his own choice of books from among those suggested by the authorities. In matters relating to discipline, the schoolmaster admonishes the pupil in private, or in public, or indicates the offense on the school register, or separates the pupil from his companions, or forbids his attending recitations, or suspends him for three days. If none of these punishments are sufficient he can suspend him for that year of the course, but before doing so must refer the matter to the official in charge of the district where the school is situated.

Corporal punishment is forbidden, but other punishments, such as standing with outstretched arms, being made to lie flat on the hard. floor, etc., are allowed. In the higher schools of the kingdom lack of discipline, neglect of duties on the part of the student, etc., are brought for adjustment to the higher council of education. Expulsion is only used in extreme cases, as with the loss of diploma the student loses certain political rights or the power to hold governmental office. The formation of programs for schools is left to the minister of public instruction. The extent of studies to be used in schools is defined by him, but the teacher is not fettered by any very strict rules.

VIII.-SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.

The system of public schools distinguishes between the national or elementary and the continuation schools. Tuition is free in the national schools, and every child is obliged to attend school from three to five years.

Elementary schools are organized in two divisions-a lower and a higher division. Each division has two classes, and in no class are more than seventy pupils allowed to a teacher. Co-education is not practiced. Boys and girls are taught in separate rooms, with male teachers for the boys and female teachers for the girls. The school year lasts ten months, and is divided into two semesters. At the end of each an examination takes place. The school week is five days; the daily session four hours, with a half hour recess. The school year extends from October 15 to August 15, but the school term usually commences fifteen days later and ends fifteen days earlier. Then there are holidays at Christmas (four days), carnival period (three days), Easter (six days), New Year, Epiphany, Ascension, Whitsunday, the day of the celebration of the constitution (first Sunday in June), Sundays, and Thursdays. Attendance is compulsory from three to five years in the elementary grades.

The school buildings are required to be in a healthful, respectable locality, to be well lighted and ventilated, and to possess seating capac ity for all who are required by law to attend school. Separate schools are to be established for boys and girls, and if this is not possible separate entrances are to be provided.

For the gymnastic exercises required by law a room or building must be provided. The commune is to provide school apparatus and furnishings for each school, also to employ a person to take charge of the building and attend to the cleaning, etc. If any of these conditions remain unfulfilled the district inspector reports to the communal authorities. Any controversy in regard to school buildings and school furnishings is to be settled by the provincial school council.

Private schools are modeled after the public schools, but the organizers are required to publish their plan of instruction, and not more than two branches can be assigned to one teacher.

Secondary schools are so organized as to keep the ginnasio or lower grade classical school distinct from that of the liceo or higher grade school. The ginnasi have five classes, with a weekly average of 22 hours' study in each class. The licei have a 3 years' course; in the lowest class 25 hours a week for study, and in the two upper classes 26 hours. The school year in these secondary institutions is of ten months duration, from October 1 to July 31; the lessons last from the 16th of October to the 30th of June, the remainder of the school year being taken up with examinations.

The technical schools and technical institutes have an entirely separate organization from that of the classical schools. The studies of these schools are so arranged as to accord with the needs of the people of the section where the institutions are situated. The technical schools are preparatory in character and admit boys between 10 and 11 years of age. The technical institutes are organized in sections, the studies being in common the first year-29 hours a week being sufficient for

the branches included in that year-in the other years of the course 32 to 36 hours a week are required. The secondary schools are only open to boys. In regard to buildings and grounds, size of rooms, and seating capacity no information is presented.

The "convitti" connected with secondary schools are separately organized for boys and girls. They are of three kinds, national, communal, and private. The first two are managed by directors who are not required to have a university degree or other certificate. The pupils attend the public schools or are taught within the precincts of these establishments. The pupils are divided into classes; each class has a teacher who also looks after the pupil outside of school hours. No class is allowed to have more than twenty pupils. These convitti are boarding schools preparing pupils for normal or classical training, aud their organization seems to be similar to such preparatory schools in this country.

The universities are organized with a rector at the head, who corresponds to our college president. He is assisted by a council composed of the dean of each faculty. The faculties are five in number, but the free universities are minus the faculty of letters and philosophy. To be admitted to university privileges a certificate of graduation from a high grade secondary school is required. The academic year is of 9 months. These institutions are open to both sexes. The student registers himself at the beginning of the year for the course which he intends to pursue, but as in German universities he is free to follow his own inclinations after this registration. He is, however, not permitted to register during the year for less than eighteen hours of study a week, or for more than thirty hours. For the medical faculty thirty-six hours is the maximum.

Special schools are too different in character for their organization to be given in this condensed statement.

IX.-SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS.

Italy has over 500 public libraries, 32 of them being subject to the authority of the state. As far back as 1877 nearly a million persons were reported as readers of books from these libraries. The Ambrosiana in Milan, with its wealth of classical and philosophical manuscripts, the national libraries of Turin, Naples, and Rome, count among the most important aids to learning. The government supports thirteen academies and institutes of fine arts, in addition to drawing schools for workingmen, the picture galleries in Turin and Florence, etc. In the academies the professors give instruction in the fine arts, in literature and history, drawing from models, perspective geometry, and architecture, etching, lithography, history of art, etc. There are also schools for music and dramatic art, the conservatory of music in Milan alone costing the government 80,000 lire ($15,840) annually. In this institution, in addition to full musical instruction, the professors teach poetic and dramatic ED 89-13

literature, universal and national history, Italian and French language and literature, the catechism, the rights and duties of citizenship, etc. For the student of archæology Italy furnishes a rich field. The Museum of Archæology in Turin has an Egyptian collection for which 400,000 lire ($77,000) were paid.

There are seventy-two or more commissions who have in charge the preservation of the ancient monuments scattered throughout Italy. The government takes great pride in all these methods for the development of a broader culture among the people, as the expenditure for such pur. poses in the year 1886-87 (see p. 186) clearly indicates.

Numerous educational societies have aided in the general educational movements, among them the "Societá di Pubblica Istruzione," organized under Napoleon I, its object being to instruct the people of city and rural districts in the elements of language, logic, morals, the rights of citizenship, politics, etc. The "Societá Nazionale per promuovere l'Istruzione nella Campagna" was instituted at a later date. Its object was similar in character to that of the other society. The "Societá d'Istruzione e d'Educazione," founded in 1849, had a journalistic organ which discussed all educational matters; through its influence educational movements of every kind flourished.

Memorable dates.

1729 and 1772. Establishment of famous royal constitutions by princes of the House of Savoy through which the control of secondary education was taken away from the religous orders, and the Collegio delle Province, with one hundred free scholarships, was established with the aim of preparing, in connection with the university, teachers qualified to give this instruction. Schools of methods were established to prepare teachers for primary schools, and with the title of Magistrato della Riforma the germ of a well-organized council of public instruction appeared.

1786. Reorganization of rural schools in Lombardy, the decree stipulating for free schools for the poor.

1802. Sub-Alpine republics decreed that all communes should establish elementary schools.

1808. Schools reorganized in parts of Italy under French domination. Academies established at Turin, Genoa, and Pisa as integral parts of the University of France.

1813. Reorganization of public instruction in Rome.

1818. New school law promulgated in the Lombardian-Venetian Kingdom which in 1822 became the code of education for that part of Italy.

1844. Establishment of "Asili d'Infancia," infant schools, in Piedmont, which were the beginning of the well organized school system.

1847. (Decree of November 30). Office of minister of public instruction created. [Ministers since that date: Cesare Alfieri di Sostegno, November 30, 1847, to March 16, 1848; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, March 16 to July 29, 1848; Urbano Rattazi, July 29 to August 4, 1848; Vincenzo Gioberti, August 4-16, 1848; Felice Merlo, August 16-27, 1848; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, August 29 to December, 1848; Carlo Cadorna, December 16, 1848, to March 27,1849; Christoforo Mameli, March 27, 1849, to November 10, 1850; Pietro Gioia, November 10, 1850, to October 20, 1851; Luigi Carlo Farini, October 21, 1851, to May 21, 1852; Carlo Bon-Compagni di Mombello, May 21 to November 4, 1852; Luigi Cibrario, November 4, 1852, to May 31, 1855; Giovanni Lanza, May 31, 1855, to October 18, 1858; Carlo Cadorna, October 18, 1858, to July 19, 1859; Gabrio Casati, July 24, 1859, to January 15, 1860; Terenzio Maniani della Rovere, January 20, 1860, to March 22, 1861; Francesco De-Sanctis, March 22,