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1861, to March 3, 1862; Pasquale Stanislao Mancini, March 3-31, 1862; Carlo Mattenci, March 31 to December 7, 1862; Michele Amari, December 7, 1862, to September 23, 1864; Giuseppe Natoli, September 23, 1864, to December 31, 1865; Domenico Berti, December 31, 1865, to February 17, 1867; Cesare Correnti, February 17 to April 10, 1867; Michele Coppino, April 10 to October 27, 1867; Emilio Broglio, October 27, 1867, to May 13, 1869; Angelo Bargoni, May 13 to December, 1869; Cesare Correnti, December 14, 1869, to May 18, 1872; Quintino Sella, May 18 to August 5, 1872; Antonio Scioloja, August 5, 1872, to July 10, 1873; Antonio Scioloja, July 10, 1873, to February 6, 1874; Girolamo Cantelli, February 7 to September 6, 1874; Ruggiero Bonghi, September 27, 1874, to March 24, 1876; Michele Coppino, March 25, 1876, to March 24, 1878; Francesco De-Sanctis, March 24, 1878, to December 19, 1878; Michele Coppino, December 19, 1878, to July 13, 1879; Francesco Paolo Perez, July 14, 1879, to November 24, 1879; Francesco De-Sanctis, November 25, 1879, to January 1, 1881; Guido Baccelli, January 2, 1881, to March 29, 1884; Michele Coppino, March 30, 1884, to February 16, 1888; Paolo Boselli, February 17, 1888, to February 8, 1891.] 1849. Establishment of "Società d'Istruzione e d'Educazione" in Lombardy-Venetia, which has been of great assistance in the organization of the present public school system.*

1859. Promulgation of the "Legge Casati," or school law, named from the minister of public instruction at that date, which forms the basis of the present school system, as it provided that each commune should maintain an elementary school, that teachers should have certificates of capacity, that there should be greater strictness in university examinations, etc.

1867, Religious corporations abolished and their schools classed as private. Other modifications of law of 1859 made.

1877. Instruction made obligatory for children between 6 and 9 years of age. 1878. Gymnastics placed on school programmes.

1881. Legal enactments reorganizing higher council of education and making changes in school supervision.

1885 and 1886. Legal enactments bearing apon 'teachers' salaries and teachers' licenses.

"To show the educational progress caused by the efforts of this society in the decade 1848-1858, and to more clearly indicate the results of the Legge Casati, the following statement is presented:

In Piedmont during the decade 1848-1858 the number of illiterates in proportion to population decreased from 80 per cent. to 20 per cent. In 1871, for the whole of Italy, the population above 6 years of age (and about the same may be said for those above 15 years) who could neither read nor write was 69 per cent. In 1831 the numbers stood 62 per cent. for the whole kingdom. The illiteracy in upper Italy was 41 per cent.; in middle Italy, 65 per cent.; in southern Italy, 79 per cent.; and in the islands 80 per cent. The smallest percentage of illiterates was 32 per cent., which was reported from Piedmont. The illiteracy in 1889 was reported for the whole kingdom as 48 per cent.

CHAPTER VII.

EDUCATION IN SWEDEN AND FINLAND.

I. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF SWEDEN.

Authorities consulted.

I.-Läroverkskomitens Betänkande I, afgivna af Kanslern för Rikets Universitet, pp. 236-238.

II.-Berättelse om Statens allmänna läroverk för gossar, läsearet, 1881-85, p. 14. III.-Läroverkskomitens förslag angående organisationen af Rikets allmånna

läroverk Bilaga E. Redogörelse för den hygieniske undersökningen. Text och. Tabellan.

IV.-Redogörelse for verksamheten vid högre lararinne-seminarium och den därmed forenade normalskolan för flickor, 1888-89, pp. 4, 6-22. V.-Normalplan för undervisningen i folkskolor och smaskolor, år 1889, pp. 63-142.

VI.-Proposition till Riksdagen, angående ändrade bestämmelser med afseende på de allmänna läroverken och pedagogierna, den 7 Februari, 1890, pp. 81-85.

VII. Das höhere Schulwesen Schwedens, von H. Klinghardt, pp. 24. 1-17, 23, 137, 144-160.

VIII.-Kongl. Tekniska Högskola i Stockholm, läseåret, 1859–290, p. 37.
IX.-Inbjudning till öfvervarande åf årsexamen vid högre realläroverket i
Stockholm, värterminen 1889, pp. 8-14.

X.-Inbjudning till öfvervaraude af årsexamen vid Stockholms högre allmänna â latinlinien fullständiga läroverk, vårterminen 1889, pp. 37–40. XI.-Nya Elementarskolan i Stockholm, 18-9, pp. 21-31.

XII.—Vor Ungdom, 1890. 3d hæfte, pp. 256–7.

XIII.—Slöjdundervisningsblad. No. 1., 1890, p. 1.

XIV.-Redogörelse for Kongl. Universitet i Upsala. 1839, p. 63.

XV.-Indépendance Belge. December 18, 1890. Sup.

XVI.-Buisson. Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'Instruction Primaire. Vol. II, p. 2835, 2-38-2839.

XVII.-Larousse. Dictionnaire Universel. Vol. XIV, p. 1202.

XVIII-Rapport de Mlle. Matrat sur les Écoles Scandinaves, pp. 21, 31, 20, 16–25,

50-51.

XIX.-Revue Pédagogique. December 15, 1887, pp. 514-547.

XX.-Almanac de Gotha. 1890. P. 1009.

XXI.-Revne Pédagogique Belge, 15 mai 1890, p. 244.

XXII.-Schmid: Encyklopädie des Erziehungs und Unterrichtswesens, vol. 8, pp. 707, 710, 713, 721, 723.

XXIII.-Jessen. Pädagogische Skizzen, Bd. II, pp. 53-57.

XXIV.-Zeitung für das höhere Unterrichtswesen, November 3, 1887, p. 347. XXV.-Schweden: Volksunterrichtswesen, pp. 1-17, 23-26; Popular Instruction pp. 22-25.

XXVI.-Exposé statistique du Royaume de Suède. Expos. Universelle de Paris, 1878, pp. 140-145, 149-151, 158-159, 164-185, 193-194, 203-204.

XXVII-Kiddle and Schem. Cyclopædia of Education, pp. 801–802.

XXVIII. Die Gesundheitsverhältnisse in den Schulen Schwedens, von Prof. Axel Key, pp. 1-17.

XXIX.-Statesmen's Year Book, 1890, pp. 946-951, 953.

XXX.-Education, March, 1890, p. 458.

XXXI.-Woman's Journal, February 8, 1890, p. 45.

XXXII.-Nature, January 20, 1887, p. 281.

XXXIII-Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1884-'85, p. ccxciv.
XXXIV.-The Pedagogical Seminary, January 1, 1891, p. 10.

XXXV. Journal of Education (London), January 1, 1890, p. 32; August 1, 1890, p. 419.

XXXVI.-Manual Training in Elementary Schools for Boys, A. Sluy. Part 2, pp. 49, 20, 50, Part 1, pp. 11-16, 20-25.

XXXVII. Science, November 25, 1887, p. 256.

XXXVIII.-Land of the Midnight Sun, vol. 2, pp. 381–387, vol 1, pp. 13–24.
XXXIX.-Burgerstein, Axel Key's Untersuchungen, pp. 185-205, 194, 195, 197.
XL.-Revue Int. de l'Enseignement, December 15, 1890, p. 628.

XLI.-Swedish Catalogue, Statistics, Internat. Exhibition, 1876, Phila., pp.71-
72, 76-77, 87.

Constitutional monarchy: Area, 170,979 square miles; population, 4,748,257 (Dec. 31, 1888). Capital, Stockholm; population, 234,990 (XXIX, pp. 946-951).

Minister of education and eclesiastical affairs, Dr. Gunnar Wennersberg, appointed February 6, 1888.

Secretary general of the department, Dr. K. L. Husberg, 1889. In charge of public higher education, Dr. E. F. Gustrin, 1882. In charge of public elementary education, Dr. A. T. Bruhn, 1864 (XX, p. 1009).

INTRODUCTORY.

In Sweden the executive power is in the hands of the King, who acts under advice of a council of state. The provincial administration is intrusted in Stockholm to a governor general, and in each of the twentyfour governments, to a prefect nominated by the King. The prefects are aided by officials termed Kronofogdar and Länsmän, and there is a general council which regulates internal affairs. Each rural parish, and each town, forms a commune or municipality in which all who pay local taxes are voters. Each commune has a communal or municipal council which decides on all questions of administration, etc. (Law of March 21, 1862.) Ecclesiastical affairs and questions relating to elementary schools are regulated by the parish assemblies, presided over by the pastor of the parish. Towns having over 25,000 inhabitants, such as Stockholm, Göteborg, Malmö, and Norrköping, have their affairs administered separately by municipal councils. (XXIX, p. 949).

I. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

Establishment.-The school system of Sweden is established by authority of the state, and is based upon the law of 1842 which provided for the establishment of a stationary school (fasta folkskola) in every church district or parish, or if local circumstances prevented, for the establishment of a migratory school (flyttande folkskola) in each district, and for the establishment of preparatory schools (småskolor) for young children in sterile or mountainous districts. Each chief town of a diocese is to have a teachers' seminary (normalskola); and since 1858, a higher elementary school (högre folkskola) is obligatory in villages and districts having more than 60 pupils. The secondary schools, which are referred to in detail on pp. 199, 200 with universities, professional schools, and special schools, complete the public school system. There are also private schools in towns. These are under the general supervision of the board of public education. (XXV, pp. 1-9; XXVII, pp. 801, 802; IX; X; XXVI, pp. 140, 141).

State control. The King is the highest school authority, and pos sesses in school matters both legislative and executive power; the control of the various grades is vested in central boards of officers connected with the different ministries of the government. Elementary and secondary schools and the universities are adjuncts of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs; special schools, of the ministry of the interior or of finance; military schools, of the ministry of army and navy. In connection with the department of ecclesiastical affairs are two divissions, the one for the oversight of elementary schools, the other for the secondary schools. Each has a board of council in charge; the universities are under the direct charge of a general board of council, with a chancellor at the head. The minister of education is at the head of these divisions, but school questions are submitted to the King for final decision (XXVI, pp. 144, 145; XXII, pp. 707, 713; XXVII, pp. 801, 802; XVI, p. 2835; XXV, pp. 6-8).

Local control.-The local management includes a school board for each district, which reports to the bishop and consistory in each diocese, school inspectors for each diocese, and local committees.

The cities of Stockholm, Göteborg, and Norrköping have special school laws, and in each of the cities a board of education has control of the schools. (XXVII, pp. 801-802; XXVI, pp. 144-145; XXV, pp. 6–8.)

Maintenance.-Elementary schools are maintained by the district with help from the state. The state pays one-half of the teacher's salary and bears the expenses for the education of teachers and the payment of inspectors. State subsidies are also given for the purchase of school apparatus and school material in poor districts. The state maintains public secondary schools, with certain subsidies to private schools of

* It is stated that since 1876 the state pays two-thirds of teacher's salary. (XXVI,

p. 159.)

this grade. It maintains the normal schools; the budget for 1886 included $87,752 for such schools, about $200,000 for the universities and medical schools, and about $100,000 for technical instruction. There are also special subsidies for the extension of Slöjd training, for industrial museums and exhibits, and for the travelling expenses of persons who are making a study of industrial or technical work. (XVI, pp. 2838–9; XIX, p. 544; XXV, pp. 23-25; XXVI, pp. 158-159.)

II. STATISTICS.

Enrollment. With a total population of 4,748,257 (in 1888), the schoolable pupils, that is, pupils between seven and fourteen years of age, were 746,768 in 1887. The number enrolled in elementary grades was 707,959.

Per cent. of population enrolled in schools.-The ratio of enrollment, i. e., the" inskrifna," in these lower grades to total population was about 15 per cent. (XVIII, p. 21; XXIX, p. 952.)

Elementary pupils and teachers.-The number of lower elementary schools at date of January 19, 1888, was 10,143; of these 6,940 were stationary ("fastafolkskolor") and 3,203 were migratory schools ("flyttande* folkskolor "). Teachers, 11,852; women, 6,922; men, 4,930. The higher people's schools, or "högre folkskolor" (established in agricultural districts for persons above the school age) numbered 23, with 870 pupils. (XXVIII, p. 21; XXIX, p. 952.)

The city of Stockholm had (in 1886) 10 elementary communal schools with 14,771 pupils. Including the higher elementary grades, the number reached 16,514. The budget for the city schools at that date was $220,454. (XVIII, p. 23.)

Secondary pupils and teachers.-The secondary schools ("högre allmänna läroverken," which include the "högre allmänna å Latinlinien

*It may be stated that the ambulatory or movable schools are rendered necessary by the topography of the country, the many forests, hills, and lakes preventing the children from attendance oftentimes at the nearest stationary school. The elementary grades include the preparatory or småskolor, which are established as near home as possible in the mountainous districts, and in which the pupils are from seven to nine years of age. The högre folkskolor, or schools in agricultural districts for pupils above school age, are arranged so that the men attend during the winter, the women during the summer. In addition to elementary instruction, the students obtain knowledge applicable to every-day life. (xxv, pp. 16, 17; XVI, p. 2837; xvIII, p, 21.) The secondary schools, imparting general information above that of the elementary grade, are generally called "elementar läroverken " or elementary schools. They are of two kinds, the higher or complete schools with 9 classes, the lower or incomplete schools with 2, 3, or 5 classes. They consist of classical and "modern" schools, corresponding in the main, the former to Latin schools and the German gymnasia; the latter to the German real schools. Pupils to be admitted must be nine years of age, and from the first class upwards there is a division in two departments. For the two highest there are teachers of special subjects; a mixed system prevails in the intermediate classes. Of the 78 schools of this class only 35 are complete schools with 9 classes, 23 have only 5 classes, the others 3 classes. A few private schools of a secon

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