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Women who are teachers in normals must have pursued their studies at the "Högre Lärarinne-Seminarium och den därmed förenade normalskola för flickor i Stockholm" (higher seminary for teachers and the normal school for girls connected with it in Stockholm), but there are comparatively few women instructors in the normal schools. Each normal has a primary school of application attached to it. There are special masters for music, drawing, and gymnastics; a military instructor, a professor of horticulture, and a physician who is instructor in hygiene, etc. The director has charge of the courses in religion and pedagogy, and Slöjd is taught by special masters at the schools of Stockholm, Kalmar, and Karlstadt, the normal school at Nääs preparing them for such position. (XIX, pp. 545-547.)

Examinations.-A four years' course with an examination at the close of each year leads to the final examination, which entitles the student to a certificate licentia docendi, giving the right to teach. To obtain such graduation diploma, there are both theoretical and practical examinations. The written compositions cover a pedagogical thesis, a lesson in religion, and questions in regard to the Swedish language. The oral examination lasts an hour in each branch. The practice lesson-the subject suggested twenty-four hours previously-covers an hour and a half in the school of application. A year's experience as teacher is required after the four years' instruction before the candidate can become a regular teacher. University study and graduation diplomas from normal schools are both requisite in order to obtain a position as teacher in the högre elementarskolor (secondary schools), or in the normal schools. (XXVI, p. 153; XIX, pp. 546-547; XXII, p. 713; IV, pp. 1-38.)

Appointment.-Special rules for the appointment of teachers are given in the school regulations sanctioned by the King. Teachers are appointed to the elementary grades by the school boards, which consist of the minister of the parish as chairman with four members as aids, if the proper normal certificate is presented. Three candidates for the vacant place are decided upon by the consistory of the diocese, then the school board chooses from among the three. The school board may also require the candidate to teach for one or two days, to show whether he is suited to the position. In rural districts the teacher is expected to fill the position of organist and sexton in the parish church, and in such case he must be familiar with music and he must also be able to vaccinate or to bleed a person. To obtain an appointment as teacher in the higher schools, university studies and attendance at a practice course in the normals are required. The consistory, that is, the bishop and chapter, selects three from the list of candidates and the school board appoints one of these three. For appointment in the preparatory, or "småskola," the candidate, if he does not bring a normal

A suggestion of the commission on hygiene, mentioned above, was to the effect that each teacher should be instructed in regard to health and hygiene, and that each school should have a teacher as hygienic assistant. (xxvш, p. 16.)

certificate, must undergo examination before the school board. (xxii, pp. 713-714; XXVI, pp. 153-154; XXV, pp. 17-20.)

Tenure of office.-No information.

Salaries.-The salaries of teachers are said to be small in Sweden. The annual salary of a regular teacher in the elementary schools must not be less than 500 kronor ($134), including 8 tunnor (36 bushels) of cereals. (XXVI, p. 155; xxII, p. 713; XLI, p. 75; XVI, p. 2837.) If the teacher's term of service extends beyond eight months the salary is increased by two tunnor of cereals for each month. Each regular teacher is also supplied by the district with suitable apartments, necessary fuel, and a piece of land for the raising of vegetables. (XXVI, pp. 154-155; XXV, p. 19.) By a royal enactment every regular teacher who has kept his office blamelessly for five years is to receive a salary of not less than $160. Teachers at the higher schools receive from $268 to $402, besides apartments and fuel. In many localities, however, this legal minimum is exceeded. In the larger cities there are teachers in the elementary grades who receive from $375 to $482, and even as high as $589. In this latter case, however, the teachers do not have free lodging and other material assistance. Assistant teachers and teachers of the "småskola" are usually paid by the district authorities. (XVI, p. 2837; XXVI, pp. 154-155; XLI, pp. 74-75.) The teachers in secondary schools-that is, in Real schools, "pedagogier," etc.-receive a higher grade of salary, the salaries being in proportion to the duties entailed upon them. (XXII, pp. 729-730.) A gradual increase in salary from year to year for principals or rectors and for certain special teachers will be noticed in the following table. (XVI, p. 2837; VII, p. 24.)

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The increase in the principal's salary at the higher secondary schools and five class schools comes after ten years' service as "rektor"; increase

in salary at the three and two class secondary schools after fifteen years' service as ordinary teacher; the increase to 3,500 crowns ($938) in the two class "pedagogier" is after twenty years' service; the increase in salary for assistant teachers and special teachers (as observed in table) after five years' service at the former grade of salary. In the universities at Upsala and Lund the professors' salaries range from $605 to $1,206, with an addition of from $268 to $402 from tuition fees. The private tutors receive no regular salary, but they average from $201 to $402 from tuition fees. (XXII pp. 730-734.)

Teachers' pensions.-Teachers' pensions are an outgrowth of a royal enactment of the year 1866, by which districts or communities are to become shareholders in a pension fund for teachers. Shares in this fund are granted for amounts of not less than 500 crowns ($134), and not exceeding 1,000 crowns ($268), and the amount paid down, not by the teachers, but by the communities, is 4 per cent. of the share. The full pension, amounting to 75 per cent. of the share, is paid to a teacher if he has served thirty years and attained sixty years of age, and also if the applicant for the pension is afflicted with an incurable disease at that point of life when his age and term of service together amount to ninety years. Under certain circumstances a smaller pension may be granted. This is determined in proportion to the whole, and paid with a certain percentage. (XXVI, pp. 155-6; XXV, p. 20; XLI, p. 76.)

Teachers', institutes.-Teachers' institutes, or educational conventions, also aid in the preparation of teachers for their life work. The number and extent of these associations is not known to date, but at a meeting held in Upsala in 1883 the subject of Slöjd training was under discussion, and at a meeting of teachers in August, 1888, reform in methods of religious instruction was fully discussed. (XII, pp. 256-7; xxxv, p. 419; XXXVI, pt. 2, p. 49.)

VI.-COURSE OF STUDY.

The general rules for instruction are that the exercises in the school shall be chiefly with a view to the development of the faculties; that the subjects to be taught must be introduced in suitable order; that the children, alternately with the reading exercises, shall early practice writing and counting; that the instruction in Bible history shall precede the catechetical instruction, and that the instruction in other subjects shall not be put off beyond the time when it can be profitably made use of by the scholars. In the higher people's schools the same subjects are taught as in the common or lower elementary grades, but with more extended courses of instruction. In the secondary schools a general education above the range of the people's schools is imparted, as well as an elementary knowledge of the sciences. The study of the latter is pursued still further, either at a university or at some higher scientific school. In the normal schools the instruction is partly theoretical and partly practical, the first two years being theoretical. Practical instruction is carried on

in the second year by the pupils attending the instruction of the teacher in the practical department and by their assisting him (XXVI, pp. 149, 150; XLI, pp. 73, 74). The course of study in the primary schools comprehends religion, beginning with recital from Bible history and the doctrine of faith from Luther's catechism, Swedish language by the writing and reading method, writing, arithmetic, beginning with mental arithmetic-the first four rules being especially practiced-and geometry, geography, and history, with a connected review of Swedish history, and outlines of history in other countries, natural history, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and in combination with them military exercises such as marches, movements, etc., horticulture and arboriculture, and manual training. In the småskolor the course is limited to religion, exercises in reading and writing (XVIII, pp. 21-25; V, pp. 63-142; XXV, pp. 14-16; XXVI, pp. 150-157), arithmetic, drawing, singing, and gym. nastics. Religious teaching is compulsory in the schools, but since a discussion of this question at a gathering of teachers in August, 1888, it has been decided to give less time to this subject. In the schools of Stockholm a reduction of two-thirds-from thirty-eight to twenty-five hours-constitutes the present stage of reform. Instruction is to be less dogmatic in character, and more attention is to be paid to biblical history. (XII, pp. 256-7; XXXV, p. 419.) The course of study in the schools of Stockholm has book-keeping as an additional branch, and swimming for boys and girls in the summer-time. Natation is said to be obligatory in all the schools of Sweden, if they are not situated more than four kilometres from the sea. (XVIII, p. 24). Skilled handiwork— "husslöjd" for girls is taught in the elementary schools, from the first principles upward. In an elementary school at Nääs, established for this purpose, all feminine occupations, such as spinning, weaving, hand and machine sewing, and domestic economy, are taught to girls between ten and sixteen years of age. (XXXVI, part 1, pp. 20, 34). The training in "Slöjd" for boys is made a specialty in all schools-the word "slöjd" denoting manual work peculiar to schools, but not strictly belonging to any definite trade; in "slöjd" the same individual finishes the whole piece of work undertaken. There are 860 special schools for this branch of instruction, and each elementary school has one or more workshops where all children exercise one or two hours daily in some branch of the work for which they have particular adaptability. Exhibitions of their work are also given. The criticisms of older pupils, teachers, or friends aid them in their work. The objects made are then utilized in the school room or are sold. In Stockholm 331 hours a year are devoted to this class of work; at Göteborg, where there are also regular industrial schools, pupils devote 6 hours a week, with 40 weeks in the year, to these branches. (XVIII, p. 25.) The work is regarded more as an educating process than as tending specially towards a trade. At Göteborg, for example, at the age of 10 or 11 years the children go into the workshop attached to the elementary school. The first year they are exercised in

wood work (carpentering, turning, and carving), on iron-work (at the forge), in paper and card board (book-binding), in color (house-painting), and in wicker-work (basket-making). The second year the pupil specifies what trade he wishes to pursue, and the apprenticeship lasts until about the fourteenth year. (XXXVI, part 1, pp. 11-16.) There is no programme, in any strict sense, after the first year. A master workman gives the instruction to a dozen or more pupils grouped together, the exercises giving opportunity for the handling of all tools peculiar to this class of work. (XXXVI, part 2, p. 53.) Every year those who have distinguished themselves by their industry or their progress receive a suitable reward in tools suited to their trade. At the close of the three years the pupils are so trained that they immediately receive pay from their employers. The object of this instruction in elementary grades is to exercise manual skill, to fix the attention and awaken intelligence, to give habits of order, to limit the construction to useful objects, to develop strength, and to present a progressive series, graduated according to difficulties of execution. (XXXVI, part 2, p. 50.) The normal school, "Slöjdlärareseminarium," at Nääs, which fits teachers for Slöjd instruction, was established in 1875, and for five years its courses prepared teachers for schools of a technical character. The final examinations included theoretical studies, a practical test in linear drawing and shop work, and a didactic examination in the school of practice. (XXXVI, part 1, pp. 20-25.) Since 1880 the course is modified, the theoretical course suppressed, and the instruction concentrated on manual work, with instruction in drawing, writing, ciphering, etc. Since then, the school is not limited to teachers merely, but it is open to all persons who have received diplomas from the school and who desire to introduce indus trial education in the schools where they are employed. (XXXVI, part 1, pp. 20-25.) Lectures on pedagogy are given, and discussions take place in regard to the historical development of education and in regard to methods of manual training for primary grades. (XXXVII, p. 256.) The temporary normal course lasts 6 weeks and a review takes place the following year, covering 5 weeks. In general these two courses suffice for the preparation of teachers in the construction of the hundred models of the series, if they continue the tool practice during the year which intervenes between the two. (XXXVI, part 1, pp. 20–25.)

The basis of the instruction at normal schools is noticed under training of teachers, but, as a type of study in the higher seminaries, the course of study in the "Högre lärarinnen seminarium och den därmed förenade normalskolan för flickor " (higher seminary for teachers and the normal school for girls connected with it) is presented. In eight normal classes and the three seminary divisions the studies are the history of religion, a comprehensive course in the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian languages and literature with French, German, and English additional, ancient and modern history, particularly in the Scandinavian countries, geography-both physical and political-mathematics, natuED 89-14

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