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ral sciences, and natural history, with lectures in physiology, and prac tical instruction in pedagogy. Special classes for the preparation of teachers of the "småskolor" are found in the normal schools for women. (IV pp. 6-22.)

In the secondary schools religion, Swedish and German languages, mathematics, natural sciences, history, and geography, caligraphy and drawing, singing, and gymnastics are taught in the three lower classes, and are continued to a certain extent in higher classes. But at the commencement of the fourth class there is a division into classical and scientific courses, the former having Latin as its basis; the latter, mathematics and natural sciences. In the "Reallinien "-so-called— English is commenced in the fifth class; in the "Latin linien" pupils have choice between Greek and English in the sixth class. Those who choose Greek may, if desired, have instruction in the English classics during the last two years of the course. In both courses German language and literature are taught to the end of the seventh year. Physics, and in the "Reallinien" chemistry, are included in the course during the last four years, and philosophical propadeutics, i. e., logic and anthropology, in the last two years. (XVI, p. 2838; IX, pp. 8-14; x, pp.37-40.) This course is varied somewhat in different schools. The French language is usually included, and in the "Statens allmänna läroverken för gossar," which include the Latin and Real schools of Upsala, Lund, and Stockholm, Hebrew is a part of the course of instruction. (II, p. 14.) A preponderance of classical studies is especially noticeable in these schools, and in both elementary and secondary schools complaints in regard to the number of studies and of hours of study have brought about investigations concerning the health and eyesight of school children, which will be referred to farther on. (IX, pp. 8-14; x, pp. 31-40; XXVIII, pp. 1-16.)

Special attention is paid to gymnastic exercises, which, according to Swedish methods, omit ropes, rings, parallel bars, etc., and simply present free and easy movement tending to produce suppleness and agility, and to exercise all organs of the body. In connection with these are the military exercises which tend especially to muscular development. They are given to all the seven classes for half an hour each day; the fifth class has one hour, and the sixth and seventh classes two hours each week in the use of arms. At the beginning and end of each school year a more extended course of training is given in drill, target shooting, and field manœuvres for eight or ten weeks, to the pupils of the sixth and seventh classes. The "Gymnastika Central Institut," or central institute for gymnastics, founded by Henrik Ling, the inventor of Swedish gymnastics, is an especially noteworthy institution. Its course is in three departments. One to train officers to superintend gymnastics in the army and navy, a second to train teachers of gymnastics for the town and country schools, and a third for the study of gymnastics as a system of medical treatment. The Swedish system, as taught at this

school, has been adopted in Germany, England, and other countries. (XVIII, pp. 16, 24; XXXVIII, p. 383.)

The technical elementary schools give both a theoretical and practical education, comprising mathematics, linear and freehand drawing, modelling, mechanics, mechanical technology, engineering, natural philosophy, chemistry, botany, zoology, modern languages, bookkeeping, and commerce. Mechanical trades are taught in free evening and Sunday classes. (XXVI, pp. 184, 185; XXXVIII, pp. 383-387; XVIII, p. 51.) The "Kongl. Tekniska Hogskola" in Stockholm, a higher type of technical school, adds geology and topography, road and canal construction, mining, and smelting. (VII, pp. 8--17.) The "Chalmerska Slöjdskola," in Göteborg, omits the mining branches. In some of these technical schools there are divisions for art industries to which women are admitted, a regular theoretical course, and instruction in wood-carving, modelling, engraving, etc., being included. (XXXVIII, p. 381; XVIII, p. 50.)

The agricultural schools have a course of study leading up to the agricultural colleges, where the instruction comprises agricultural and rural economy with study of land laws, farm architecture, diseases of domestic animals, cattle raising, etc., in addition to such branches as chemistry, natural philosophy, and practical mechanics; courses of lectures, finely illustrated, are also given by distinguished professors. Among the many elementary and secondary schools there are private institutions, the course of study being such as to entitle the graduates to admission to the universities. There are also a large number of private professional and trade schools with courses of study similar to the public secondary and slöjd schools. (XXXVIII, pp. 381-387.)

For students who have successfully passed the examination at the "elementar-skolor" (secondary schools) there are the universities at Upsala and Lund which have complete theological, legal, medical, and philosophical faculties. Each faculty confers three degrees of scholarship, viz., the degree of candidate, of licentiate, and of doctor, and it is stated that no man in Sweden can be a clergyman, a lawyer, or doctor unless he has graduated at either Upsala or Lund. The student is free to follow any course that he desires, and all instruction is gratuitous. The academic year is divided into two terms, the one from September 1 to December 15, and the other from January 15 to the first of June. (XLI, p. 87.) Among the teachers are found training masters in music, drawing, gymnastics, and fencing, and in horsemanship at Upsala.

Women are admitted as students in the universities after passing the regular examination; they are allowed to follow the studies of their choice, and some are on the rolls as students of philosophy and medicine. (XXVI, p. 195.)

Comprehensive courses of study for the professions are found in the medico-surgical institute, in the institute of pharmacy, in military and naval schools, and in other higher grade schools. (XXXVIII, pp. 381390; XXVI, pp. 193-195; XXII, p. 737; XVI, p. 2839.)

VII. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF DISCIPLINE.

Methods.-The management of the school is left almost entirely to the teacher, and he is free to carry out his views in regard to grading the studies, arranging class work, etc., providing he keeps within prescribed limits for each course. His school is, however, subject to inspection from time to time, and the general progress in the schools, needs of reform, if any, are reported by the inspectors to the consistory annually, and to the department of ecclesiastical affairs and education every fifth year. (XLI. p. 71.)

Discipline. The principal keeps a class journal in which he notes from hour to hour the incidents of the day, the cases of corporal punishment, neglect of duty, mistakes occurring, visits received, etc. This journal assists the teacher in exercising control over himself, and aids in keeping up the discipline of the school. (XVIII, pp. 16, 21, 23, 25.)

Study and recitations.-The schools of Stockholm, under the direc tion and inspection of M. Meyerberg for twenty-five years, and which serve as models for the whole country, have developed the following methods, viz: After forty-five minutes' work, teachers and pupils go out into the court or school yard and remain ten minutes engaged in exercises of different kinds. Fifteen minutes after the close of the lesson, invigorated by the change, they are back in well-aired rooms with body and mind rested and ready for another lesson. No lesson lasts more than forty-five minutes, and while the programme of studies is very complete, overpressure is avoided by the above arrangement. The school commences at 8 o'clock, lasts till 1, and during that time one of the recesses is extended to thirty minutes so that pupils and teachers can take their lunch. This management is said to bring about admirable results, the physical and the mental being equally in training at the same time. (XVIII, pp. 18, 22.)

Promotion of pupils.-The promotion of pupils from class to class takes place at the end of each year after an examination in presence of the district director, two pastors of the neighborhood, several of the teachers, the inspector, parents, and others. The examination is a kind of festal occasion, schoolrooms, blackboards, etc., being decorated for the occasion. The work accomplished by the pupils is on exhibition, and the teachers examine orally in the different branches. The whole examination has a quasi-familiar air, the pupils and teachers seeming quite at ease. (XVIII, p. 16.)

Formation of programmes.-The formation of programmes is unknown to date.

VIII.-SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.

Buildings and grounds.-The school law prescribes that every schoolhouse shall be constructed according to certain requirements; the school rooms to be sufficient in number,. light, and high-studded, provided

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with fireplaces, and arranged with strict regard to the health of pupils, and with necessary conveniences for instruction. As a result of this law the school buildings are large and well arranged with wide stairways and well ventilated and well lighted class rooms, the light usually coming from the left side. New school buildings have furnaces in the cellar, ventilators, separate buildings for gymnastic exercises, cloak rooms for each class, suitable toilet arrangements, two work rooms where the teachers correct class work, prepare their lessons, rest when they are at liberty, and have lunch. Independent of these is the principal's room, where parents, teachers, and pupils are welcome morning or evening. The court-yards or play grounds for each sex are spacious, and sometimes there is an additional garden for women teachers. In Stockholm the school buildings are of a high type of architecture with vast covered galleries upon which open the class rooms. The walls of these class rooms are wainscoted and adorned with engravings and plaster casts. The seating capacity of each class room is for thirty-six pupils, each pupil having a chair and table. (XVII, p. 11.) Hours of school.-The hours of school are usually from five to six a day, with intermissions of a few minutes between hours, but in some schools instruction is given in the forenoon only. (XXVI, p. 148; xxv, pp. 11-12.)

Length of recesses.-The length of recesses varies; it may be a few minutes, fifteen minutes, or half an hour. (XVIII, p. 18; xxv, pp. 11-12; XXVI, p. 148.)

Holidays and vacations.-The vacations are of three consecutive months in Sweden, and the instruction generally covers eight school months divided into two terms, but sometimes into three or four terms. In a few schools instruction is given during nine or ten months. (XXVI, p. 148; XVIII, p. 18.)

Compulsory attendance.-Attendance upon school is compulsory for children who have attained their ninth year, and all who do not receive instruction at home or in private schools must attend public schools. The instruction generally begins with the seventh and lasts till the fourteenth year. Children whose parents are not able to keep them in school during that period are aided by the authorities. (XXVI, p. 146; XXV, p. 9.)

School supply. The schools are well supplied with apparatus, and every school has a library to which additions of books are made each term. There are also school museums with zoological, geological, and bo

"The statements made in 1983 by the commission appointed to investigate the hygienic condition of school buildings, sickness of children, near-sightedness, etc., indicate that at that date the school rooms were not well aired or properly ventilated. The ventilators were arranged so near the floor, the pupils could not sit near them; the ventilation pipes were often filled with mortar, and the air became very impure; the carbonic acid in the air increased from 0.67 before school to 2.34 parts in a thousand after one hour, even with windows and ventilators open before the commencement of the session. (XXXIX, pp. 188-205, 194-197.)

tanical collections, and the gymnastic hall attached to each educational institution is fully equipped. (XXXVIII, p. 378.)

IX.-SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS.

Libraries and museums.-Sweden possesses libraries and museums connected with most educational institutions, and in the higher grade schools fine laboratories for chemical experiments are found. There are also public libraries in the various districts containing books of an educational and scientific character, which are freely loaned to the people of the district. Among the most noted libraries, which serve as aids to learning, are the Royal Library at Stockholm, the libraries connected with the universities at Upsala and Lund, the library connected with the Academy of Sciences at Göteborg, the polytechnic library, the library connected with the Institut Carolin, that of the central bureau of statistics, and of the Academy of Fine Arts, History and Archæology, the collections varying in numbers from over 200,000 volumes in the first mentioned library to about 15,000 in the last mentioned institution. The museums which serve as aids to education are the national museum, with sections for industrial and fine arts; the state historical museum, or "Ryks museum," which is rich in antiquities; the museum of the Swedish Society for Arts and Trades, "Svenska Slöjdforeningen," aiming to develop industries; the Scandinavian ethnographical museum; and museums at Göteborg and Uddervalla. (XXVI pp. 198, 203-210; XXXVIII, vols. 1, 2.)

Societies-A large number of learned and scientific societies may be classed under this head, i. e., the Swedish Academy, founded in 1786, aiming to increase knowledge of the language and history of the country; the Academy of Sciences, "Vetenskaps Akademien;" the Academy of Literature, History, and Archæology, "Vittertets, Historia, och Antiqvitets Akademien;" the Academy of Agriculture, "LandtbruksAkademien;" the Academy of Fine Arts, "Akademien för de Fria Konsterna;" the Academy of Music, "Musikaliska Akademien;" and the Academy of Military Sciences, "Krigsvetenskaps Akademien," which aids progress in military sciences; the Society for the Historical Study of Scandinavian Paleography, "Samfundet för Utgifvande af Handskrifter rörande Skandinaviens Historia;" and many other societies which promote the study of geology, anthropology, archæology, medicine and pharmacy, horticulture, pedagogy, etc. (XXVI, pp. 202203; XXVI, pp. 199-203; XL, pp. 96-97.)

Another society, the "Handarbetet-Vänner," established in 1874, encourages and develops home industries for women, especially from the artistic side, instruction being given in embroidery, lace making, and weaving. (XVII, p. 53.)

School savings banks.-Savings banks and postal savings banks are thoroughly established in Sweden and benefit a large class of employés, but whether there are school savings banks is unknown to date. (XV, sup.)

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