Among other questions proposed by the commission were whether students who had not pursued classical studies could be admitted to university examinations, and whether the preparatory examinations were suitable for all university requirements, these queries being an outgrowth of discussions concerning the preponderance of Latin and Greek in the secondary schools. The answers presented by the members of the different university faculties varied somewhat in character, but the decision as a whole was in favor of more modern studies suited to the progressive movements of the times, and with less Latin and Greek. (VII, pp. 155-160; 1, pp. 236-238.) The medical faculty at Stockholm considered the superabundance of Latin in the classical schools unnecessary and the studies in natural sciences and other branches found in the Real schools better suited to requirements for physicians, and it was conceded that botany and zoology as well as chemistry and physics were needed for the preliminary medical examination.

The school commission appointed by the Swedish Government in 1883-84 to inquire into the organization of the higher grade schools also examined as to their hygienic conditions, the investigations covering general health of school children, overpressure, and near-sightedness. The commission examined 14,722 boys and 3,246 girls and found that 13.5 per cent. of the boys were suffering from headaches, 34.4 per cent. of boys in the lowest classes of middle schools were troubled with sickness, that the illness-curve (the results being given in diagrams and tables of ratios and percentages) increased from 37 per cent. in the sec ond school year to 40 per cent. in the fourth year, as the burden of work increases from class to class. This sickness-curve corresponds with the growth period of the boys, or from the seventh to the thirteenth year. In the Latin schools, the sickness was about 50 per cent.; in the real schools, about 40 per cent.; in Stockholm the per cent. of sickness was greater than the general average throughout the Kingdom. The percentage of near-sightedness rose from 6.1 per cent. in the lowest class of the secondary grades to 37.3 per cent. in the highest Latin class. (XXVIII, pp. 1-16.)

In the girls' schools 61.7 per cent. were suffering from disorders, many from constant headaches, 10 per cent. from spinal complaint, and here again it was apparent that a reorganization of the school system was necessary, as the overpressure of studies and the number of hours of work caused this liability to illness. The regular gymnasial schedules presented seven hours of work daily in the lower classes, with an increase to eleven or twelve hours in the higher classes, and this did not include private instruction or optional studies. As the girls' schools are modelled on similar plans to those for boys, the canses of illness are easily determined. Computations as to the average time of work in each class of the boys' schools indicated that the amount of illness of those who worked longer than the average was 5.3 per cent. higher than that of those who worked a less number of hours. That is, among

the boys who worked a shorter time than the average 50.8 per cent were ill, while among those who worked more than the average 56.1 per cent. were classed as sick. A comparison between the higher grade schools and elementary grades was not made, as the commission did not take these lower schools into consideration. This was done in Denmark, however, in 1881, when the hygienic conditions there were investigated, and the results presented by the Danish commission were such as to indicate a similar percentage of sickness in both elementary and secondary grades. (XXVIII, pp. 1-16.)

The reorganization brought about by the investigations of the Swedish commission is to include the appointment of a school physician. He is to visit each school once a month to consider hygienic conditions, to measure and weigh the pupils at the beginning and end of the year so as to report upon their growth, to examine as to nearsightedness, etc. He is also to be consulted about school programmes and hours of study, so that there will be less liability to over-pressure and consequent illness. The teacher is expected to act as his assistant, so far as daily watchfulness is concerned, and to consult with him in regard to possible changes of method. Since the publications of these investigations other educational reforms have been attempted from year to year, all tending towards improvement in methods and with the special object of shortening the number of hours of study. The present plan of reconstruction seems to be to throw Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Sanscrit out of the intermediate schools and gymnasia, and place them in a special department of the university. (XXXIV, p. 10.) This is probably the result of a suggestion to the Government made by the Swedish university committee that the youngest students should receive instruction similar to that given at the school; that the professor is personally to advise beginners how to plan and commence their university studies; that he is to ascertain by oral and written examinations whether the students follow his advice, and finally that none but those who pass an examination are to be admitted to the higher classes, where scientific lectures by the professors are the students' sole guide.* (Xxv, p. 32.)

*The latest progressive movement is that of the students of the University of Upsala, who, in 1891. are to present a request to the King that instruction in military adininistration and organization be given at that university. The course to cover military history and strategy of defense in case Sweden is attacked. Fifteen to twenty lessons a year to be given. (XL, p. 628.)

II. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF FINLAND.

AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.

I-Statistisk Arsbok för Finland, 1888-'90, pp. 95–119, 161–162.

II.-Statistisk Öfversigt af Elementarläroverkens i Finland tillstånd och verksam het, läseåret, 1888-'89, pp. 1-47.

III.-Polytekniska institutet i Finland: Berättelse för läseåret, 1838-'89, pp. 1-27.
IV. Brahestads Borgare-och Handelsskola. Berättelse, 1836-'87, pp. 22-28.
V.-Vor Ungdom. Haefte 1-2, 1890, pp. 70–80; Haeft 1, 1891, pp. 83–90.

VI.-Le Grand-Duché de Finlande. Notice statistique par K. E. F. Ignatius (Exposition Universelle de 1878 à Paris), pp. 47-57.

VII.-Revista de Educação e Ensino, Lisboa, Oct., 1890, pp. 459-467; Nov., 1890, pp. 497-504.

VIII.-Larousse: Dictionnaire Universel, t. 8, p. 401.

IX.-Fortnightly Review, Jan., 1891, pp. 50–65.

X.-Barnard's Journal of Education, v. 24, 1873, pp. 209–224.
XI.-Statesman's Year Book, 1890, pp. 846-891, 643-844.

XII.-Almanac de Gotha, 1890, p. 981.

XIII.-Buisson's Dictionnaire de Pédagogie et d'Instruction Primaire. t. 2, 1re partie, p. 2659.

The references in the following statement correspond in number to the foregoing.

INTRODUCTORY.

Finland; Grand Duchy; area, 144,255 square miles; population, 2,270,912 in 1887. Capital, Helsingfors; population, 55,740. (XI, pp. 846, 891.)

Department of ecclesiastical affairs, sciences, fine arts, and public instruction, Dr. G. Z. Yrjö-Koskinen in charge of educational affairs. (XII, p. 981.)

Finland has been annexed to Russia, but not incorporated in it. Since it was ceded to Russia on September 17, 1809, it has preserved, by special grant of Alexander I in 1810 (renewed by his successors), some remains of its ancient constitution, which, dating from 1772, was reformed in 1789, and slightly modified in 1869 and 1882. There is a national Diet consisting of nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants, who discuss laws proposed by the Emperor. Schemes of laws are elaborated by a committee for the affairs of Finland in St. Petersburg. Four of the members of this committee are nominated by the Crown (two of them being proposed by the senate). The senate, which sits at Helsingfors, is nominated by the Crown. It is under the presidency of the governor-general, who represents the Czar. The senate is the supreme administrative power in Finland, and consists of two departments, justice and finance, which have the administration of various divisions of the internal affairs of Finland. The educational system of Finland is separated from that of Russia. (XI, pp. 843, 844; XIII, p. 2659.)

I-GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

The school system includes four classes of schools, grouped as elementary, higher, professional, and for the education of the deaf, dumb, and blind. All except the professional schools are in charge of a cen tral board of education at Helsingfors. (VI p. 47.)

Establishment.-The establishment of public schools was brought about by a decree of April 19, 1858, which required rural districts to establish stationary schools, and promised them governmental support. The diet of 1863-64 having voted necessary funds for promoting popu lar education, a decree of May 11, 1866, definitely organized elementary instruction in Finland, According to this decree each town was to provide a sufficient number of elementary schools for all children between seven and fourteen years of age, who were not being educated at home, or in schools of a higher grade. Schools must be established also for pupils of a more advanced age who were without earlier advantages. According to this decree elementary schools were to be divided into lower and higher grades, the former for children between six and ten years of age, the latter for those between ten and fourteen years. In rural communes the earliest instruction of children is given in families, but by this same decree the authorities are required to see that if such instruction is not given the children attend either a stationary or ambulatory school. (VI, pp. 47, 48; VII, pp. 459-461.)

Control.-The control of the school system is vested in a higher school board-"Öfverstyrelsen for Skolväsendet"--at Helsingfors. This board is an adjunct of the Imperial Senate of Finland, and especially connected with the administrative section of public instruction and worship. An inspector in chief, appointed by the Czar, as suggested by this higher council, acts as inspector of elementary and normal schools. There are also local inspectors, provided for by law of 1869, in each governmental subdivision of Finland, and in each district, or commune, a local board of education composed of from four to six members. (X, p. 218; VII, pp. 464, 465.)

Maintenance. The schools are maintained by both state and local funds. The state gives an annual subsidy for the payment of teachers, providing the district constructs suitable school buildings and furnishes the teacher with lodging and ground around it. Private schools also receive state subsidies. The school budget contains subsidies for secondary, higher, professional, and special schools. (VI, p. 48; I, p. 161.)

II. STATISTICS.

Population, 2,270,912 (in 1887); enrollment in elementary schools, 62,893; ratio of enrollment to total population, 2 per cent. (XI, p. 846). Elementary schools, pupils, and teachers.-There were 971 elementary schools (fasta folkskolor) reported in 1887-'88 in Finland; teachers (lärarepersonal), 1,264; pupils in elementary and infant schools (barnskolor), 62,893; boys, 34,113; girls, 28,780. (I, pp. 106, 107).

Secondary schools, pupils, and teachers.-The secondary and professional schools1 (elementarskolor and realskolor) in 1887-'88 were 27 in number; 'Finland, as well as Sweden, classes its secondary schools under the heading Elementarläroverken. All schools mentioned in this paragraph are included under that head.

teachers, 172; pupils, 1,051. The lyceums (lyceer) were 28 in number; teachers, 432; pupils 4,461. The 4 preparatory schools (förskolor) for pupils desiring to enter the lyceums had 13 teachers and 159 pupils. Classed under secondary schools are 52 institutions for girls, with 559 teachers and 4,057 pupils. There are also 5 industrial schools (industriskolor), with 37 teachers and 255 pupils. (I, pp. 100-117; VI, p. 51.) Higher education.-The 4 normal schools (folkskollärare och lärarinueseminarier) had 45 teachers and 563 pupils. The "Universitet i Helsingfors" had 90 professors and 1,703 students, 14 of them women. Classed under secondary and higher education are the following special schools: The "Polytekniska Institutet," with 31 professors and 132 st. dents in 1888-'89; 7 navigation schools (navigationsskolor), with 113 pupils; 6 commercial schools (handelsskolor), with 57 teachers and 297 pupils; 31 Sunday schools for apprentices in 1886, with 111 teachers and 2,111 pupils; 12 agricultural schools (landtbruksläroverken), with 44 teachers and 279 pupils; and 16 dairy schools (mejerilä overken), with 41 teachers and 148 pupils in 1887-'88; trade schools (handtverk. skolor), 12; pupils, 965; teachers, 68 in 1888-'89. Then there are the 5 deaf and dumb schools (döfstumsskolor), with 22 teachers and 225 pupils; the 2 institutions for the blind (blindanstalter), with 11 teachers and 54 pupils; and the asylums for idiots (idiotanstalter), with 2 teachers and 9 pupils, which also report for the year 1888-'89. (I, pp. 95-118.; VI, p. 53.)

Length of school year. This is not specified for the elementary schools, but it is stated that instruction must be given at least 30 weeks and 30 hours a week during the year, in order that the higher elementary schools may receive governmental aid. Secondary schools are kept open from September 1 to December 20, and from January 14 to May 31; the university from September 15 to December 15, and from January 15 to May 15. (X, p. 215; VII, pp. 466, 497.)

Ages of pupils.-According to decree of May 11, 1866, districts are required to establish schools enough for all children between 7 and 14 years of age who are not receiving instruction either at home or in a higher grade school. Still older pupils are required to have school facilities allowed them if their early education has been neglected.

In the lower grade elementary schools the age is 6 to 10 years; in the higher elementary grades from 10 to 14 years. (VI, p. 48; VII, p. 460.)

III.-FINANCES.

Income. The income for school purposes is derived from governmental subsidies and from communal funds. The government gives an annual subsidy of $154 for the payment of each male teacher, and of $116 for the payment of each woman teacher in the commune, providing the district establishes stationary schools and furnishes the teachers with lodging, ground, etc. City districts receive 25 per cent. of their expenses.