Hours of school.-The number of school hours a day is not speci fied, but, as has already been stated, at least thirty hours' instruction a week must be given in the higher elementary grades in order to obtain funds for school purposes from the state. (X, p. 215.)

Holidays and vacations.-Date of holidays and vacations in elementary grades not known; in secondary grades, the Christmas holidays-December 20 to January 14-and the vacation months of June, July, and August are specified. (VII, p. 466.)

Compulsory attendance.-Attendance is compulsory for children between seven and fourteen years of age, earlier instruction being given either in the family, or in the ambulatory schools established in farmhouses in rural districts. Teachers of these schools, which move from point to point every two or three months, are paid by the commune, or receive small fees from the children taught. (VI, p. 48; VII, p. 461; X, p. 214.)

School supply. The regularly established city schools are reported as well supplied with apparatus and school material. (IX, pp. 50–65.)

IX.-SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS.

Libraries and museums.-Aids to intellectual growth are libraries and museums, either of a public character or connected with institutions in cities and in a number of rural districts. There are also reading rooms for special study connected with people's libraries in different parts of Finland. The largest library and the most important collections are affiliated with the University of Helsingfors. These include a library of 200,000 volumes, a small library of Russian literature, and a choice library of classical philology, an anatomical and zoological museum, a cabinet of numismatics, an ethnographical and historical museum, a collection of mineralogical specimens, an art museum, and a collection of armor and weapons of different periods.

The archives of Finland aid in the study of the country's history, as they contain a collection of acts dating back to 1265, and a fairly com. plete collection of Finland's administrative reports since 1531. (VI, pp. 56, 57, VII, p. 498-501.)

Associations and societies.-Numerous societies and associations are reported in Finland, several of which have initiated movements to promote progress in scientific, literary, and educational matters. The majority of these societies are under the direct influence of the university (VI, p. 53). The Finnish scientific society (Finska Vetenskaps Societet), founded in 1838, has three sections-physics and mathematics, natural sciences, history and philology. Its "Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennica," contain papers on divers subjects and biographical The central meteorological observatory is under the direction of this society.

The "societas Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica," founded 1821, has a com

plete collection of the country's fauna and flora, as found by prominent naturalists in annual excursions for such purpose. From 1848 to 1875, a bulletin of this work was presented to the public; since 1876 the "Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica" takes its place. (VII, pp. 501-503.)

The Finland Archæological Society, established in 1870, has united its collections with the historical ethnographical collections of the university.

The "Suomen-Muinaismusto-yhdistyksen aikakauskirja," published since 1874, is the organ of this society.

The historical society, founded in 1875, investigates history, archæ ology and cognate sciences, publishing documents relating to such subjects. Two geographical societies were established in 1888-the one for general study, the other for the study of the geography of Finland. The society for the study of Finnish literature, founded in 1831, comprises three sections-philology, history, and fine arts. The "Suome," or annual publication of this society appears in the Finnish tongue. Its most notable collections consist of national songs and folklore. In contradistinction to this society is the one for the study of Swedish literature in Finland, which, established in 1855, publishes annual reports of its investigations. (VII, pp. 501–503.)

The Society for Fine Arts, founded in 1846, for the purpose of art study, owns at present, through gift and purchase, a collection of sculp ture and paintings, which forms the basis of an annual exhibit of works of art.

The Society of Arts, as applied to industries, established in 1875, maintains a professional school at Helsingfors. There are also societies or associations for promoting technical, horticultural, and agricultural pursuits.

An imperial economic society for Finland, dating from 1797, aims to promote progress in agriculture, dairy farming, etc. It publishes annual reports and separate papers on similar subjects. A society founded by the women of Finland in 1884 aims to ameliorate the condition of women, and to give them opportunities for higher edu cation (VII, pp. 501-503). Many other associations work for the edu cation of the poor or are engaged in philanthropic and religious work. One such society has opened a people's library, where books, journals, and reviews are at the disposal of the people, and it is stated that "the workingmen come in thousands in autumn and winter to read them." It also gives an annual subscription to an asylum for poor children between 4 and 7 years of age, who are taught to read, write, and mend. It supports a school of domestic economy for girls, and a school for the children of the poorest classes, where they are given elementary instruction and are taught a trade, and are taken care of from 6 in the morning until 7 or 8 o'clock in the evening. It also helps support a reformatory for children of criminal propensities.

Schools for special classes.-Subordinated to the central administration are two institutes for the blind, one in Helsingfors and the other in Kuopio; four schools for the deaf and dumb (Döfstumskolor), in Åbo, Borga, Kuopio, Jakobstad, and a private school for the deaf and dumb at Hvittis. (VII, p. 465.)

The governmental schools for the deaf had 205 pupils in 1888-89, the private school, 20 pupils. Expenditures by the state, $10,558; for the school at Hvittis, $434. The two institutions for the blind (Blindanstalter) had 54 pupils, and the state expenditures were $7,684. (I, p.110.) The course of study in these institutions extends from three to eight years. Information in regard to methods is wanting.

A private institute for the education of idiots, in Jakobstad, had nine pupils-Swedes-in that year (1888-89). To support this school $579. were required. (I, p. 110; VII, p. 465.)

Public charities.-Information is wanting in regard to charities, although the statements made above as to philanthropic effort indicate that much is accomplished by the people of Finland for the benefit of all classes.

X.-HISTORICAL STATEMENT.

The school system of Finland is distinct from that of Russia, of which Empire it is a grand duchy. Its main features are similar to those of Sweden, to which country it belonged until 1809. Prior to 1611 education was under the control of the monks, as in Sweden; after that date the schools were subject to governmental regulations. (X, p. 213.) In 1630 the first gymnasium was founded at Åbo. In 1640 a university was established at Åbo, but on account of loss of the buildings by fire, it was removed to Helsingfors in 1827. According to its present constitution, decree of 1852, the government of the institution rests with the chancellor and consistorium. The Czar is really at the head of the university, but he is represented by one of the grand dukes. The consistorium, composed of the rector and regular professors, attends to the internal management of the university. (X, pp. 213, 217; VII, p. 401.)

In 1649, 1693, and 1724 important school laws were passed, and in 1686 an edict of Charles XI, which is still in force, required the clergy to hold an annual examination for the purpose of ascertaining whether the children of Finland could read, and whether they knew their catechism. That law led to the establishment of schools for the common people, for it prohibited the marriage of parties who had not been confirmed, and could neither read nor pass an examination in regard to the doctrines of the Lutheran Church.

In 1780 the military school of Frederickshams was established, with a three years' course and three years' preparatory department; the graduates to enter a higher school of special service. (X, pp. 213220.)

In 1812 three navigation schools were created. The courses continue from the middle of October to the middle of April. In 1837 agricultural institutes are first mentioned. (X, p. 220.)

In 1843 a new school law was promulgated, which was modified by acts of 1856, 1862, and 1864.

In 1847 the polytechnic school at Helsingfors was established, but a reorganization took place in 1872.

In 1858, April 19, a decree required rural communes to establish stationary schools, governmental aid being guaranteed. From this year dates the first school for deaf mutes. (VII, p. 460; X, p. 220.)

In 1863 the first Teachers' Association was organized. It held monthly meetings, and its membership fee was $1.50 a year. (X, p. 221.)

A normal school for teachers was established in 1863-64, in Jyväskylä, which had for its director Uno Cygnæus, the organizer of primary instruction in Finland. (X, p. 214.)

In 1863-64 the Government voted the necessary funds for carrying on the public schools. (VII, p. 461.)

In 1865 a "Folkskole-förordning" or school law was passed, which, with modifications in 1869 and 1872, withdrew the higher public schools from ecclesiastical supervision and control, and instituted a system of governmental supervision for all the schools of Finland. (X, p. 213.)

A decree of May 11, 1866, definitely organized elementary instruction in Finland, each commune or district' being required to establish a sufficient number of schools for all children between seven and fourteen years of age, or to see that they were instructed in reading, spelling, and the catechism, either at home or in an ambulatory school. Governmental grants were to be withheld if the communal authorities failed to carry out this decree. (VI, p. 48; VII, pp. 460-461; X, p. 214.) This law also provided for three normal schools, the course to extend through four years, the last one devoted to practice in model schools and kindergarten attached to the schools. During this year a school for the blind was founded at Helsingfors; the one at Kuopio dates from 1870.

A law of 1869 created a central board of education (Öfverstyrelsen för Skolväsendet), consisting of a president and six members, two of whom were to be governmental officials, and the other four engaged in educational or scientific work. One of the four members was to supervise the common schools; the other three the higher schools.

'Finland for purposes of civil administration is divided into 8 läns (circles or territorial divisions), which are again subdivided into 51 härader (districts for tax purposes), and again into 249 Länsmans (districts for other civil purposes). For ecclesiastical purposes the country is divided into 3 dioceses (Åbo, Borga, Kuopio), which contain 485 parishes. (X, p.210.)

The position of supervisor of common schools was held at that date by Rev. Uno Cygneus, who was commissioned by the Government to visit Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland for the purpose of studying their common-school systems, preparatory to reorganizing the school system of Finland.

In 1871 a normal school for the education of women teachers was established in Ekenäs; in 1873 a second normal, for male teachers, at Nykarleby; in 1880 one at Kymölä, near Sordavala, for both sexes. (X, p. 213; VII, p. 460.)

An act of 1872 classified the real schools, lyceums, and higher schools for women under the heading "Elementarläroverken;" the Real schools to receive pupils from 'nine to twelve years of age, to continue their elementary education and prepare them for special schools; the lyceums to include all the old gymnasiums and higher elementary schools; the schools for women to instruct in similar subjects to those of the Real school, with bookkeeping omitted. These schools were under the supervision of the central administration, and although public they were not free, except to those who were unable to pay fees. Tuition fees varied according to studies pursued; in the lower classes of the Real schools the fees were $2.50 a year; in the higher classes $5. In lyceums and schools for girls $7.62 was considered a requisite amount for tuition. (X, pp. 215-216.)

The university, according to the constitution of 1852, has the four fac ulties: theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, each faculty awarding its own diplomas.

To enter the university students must pass a final examination at the lyceums, and an examination conducted by a committee of professors designated by the academic authorities. The student is required to enroll himself in one of the four faculties, and in one of the six "nations" into which the students are divided. These nations—“ Nyländska,” Savolaks-Karelska, Tavastländska, Westfinska, Wiborgska, Osterbötniska-indicate the subdivision of the duchy from which the students come. Each "nation" supervises the morals of its members, and its disciplinary power even extends to the suspension of a refractory member from the university for a period not exceeding 2 years. (X, p. 218.) The "nation" taxes its members for necessary expenses for both special and general purposes. A professor or "inspektör," designated by the chancellor for a 3 years' period, stands at the head of each of these bodies. His aid is a vice president elected by the members from among the graduates belonging to the nation. To obtain a regular professorship in any given faculty, the candidate must hold the degree of doctor in that faculty and write a thesis on the subject he is to teach. To obtain the degree of doctor he must be an M. A., and have submitted to a second examination. To be an extraordinary professor, a doctor's degree and evidence of learning and ability are required. The senatus academicus requires satisfactory credentials of candidates for the position of docent or instructor. (X, p. 217.)

Any change of university organization or statutes-those of 1852 being still in vogue-must be examined by the academic authorities and senate, and then receive imperial sanction. (X, p. 497.)

As regards technical education, it is stated that numerous agricul