tural schools, as well as other special schools, have been opened since 1863. Among them dairy-farming schools, forestry schools, a groom's school (for theoretical and practical instruction in the breeding of horses), a cattle-breeder's school, two schools of horticulture, and two farrier's schools. There are also agricultural, chemical, and seed stations in various parts of the country, where, for a nominal sum, the peasants and farmers can have analyses made of the composition and agricultural value of the soil, etc., and can watch practical experiments in gardening, forestry, and dairy farming. The growth of education within the last 20 years may be inferred from the fact that, according to a statement made by a late traveler', there are probably at the present moment not 5,000 persons in the grand duchy unable to read and write, and a large percentage of those who are inscribed in that category are not Finns. The ambulatory school is still indispensable, however, as a single parish is sometimes scattered over a dozen islands, but the stationary elementary school compares favorably with corresponding educational establishments in England and the United States. The teachings of the university and the discoveries of the laboratory are also brought within the reach of the humblest classes, while the peasants of the remotest hamlets have their paper, and so keep up with the world's progress. (IX, pp. 50-65.) Article in Fortnightly Review, January, 1891. CHAPTER VIII. EDUCATION IN SPAIN. Spain, a constitutional monarchy; total area, 197,670 square miles; total population, 17,550,246, census of 1887. The country is divided into forty-nine provinces, each of which administers its own affairs; the provinces are subdivided into municipios (municipal districts). STATISTICS OF PUPILS AND TEACHERS. The following tabulation presents the latest general educational statistics: The term "primary instruction" (instruccion primaria) has a more extended signification in Spain than in the United States, including as it does, in a great measure, both elementary and high school instruction, as those terms are commonly understood in this country. It is classified into preparatory, elementary primary, and superior primary instruction. a Public and private establishments. 6 For public establishnients only. c Technical, art, and industrial schools. GENERAL VIEW. In the absence of full official information respecting education in Spain, various educational works and papers have been consulted for general information as to the condition and progress of the Spanish school system. These make it evident that Spain, which several cen turies ago reached its zenith in learning, and whose university of Salamanca equaled the famous universities of other nations, is at the present time somewhat behind other civilized nations in respect to education. A law of September, 1857,1 provided for a system of public primary instruction, which if fully developed would bear excellent fruit; but the practical application of this law has been sadly hindered and retarded by political disturbances and the resulting depletion of the treasury of the Government. The census of 1883 showed that 45 per cent. of the population above seven years of age were illiterates, a proportion surpassed only by Russia, Roumania, Servia, Portugal, Bulgaria, and Turkey. This is a sufficient proof that elementary education has not been widely diffused among the people. The educational statistics show a fair supply of teachers; for example, in 1880 there was 1 head teacher to every 120 children of school age (4-14), and including assistants 1 teacher to every 102 of the population of school age. The inference is that the low condition of the people with respect to education comes largely from their own indifference to the subject. In respect, however, to the diffusion of education, Spain shows the same want of uniformity as is noticeable in other countries, certain communities having attained a much higher level of general intelligence than others. Liberal and broad-minded men, scientists, and philosophers have worked faithfully for several years to advance the cause of public instruction, and to call the attention of the state and the public to the disheartening condition of education in general. Since 1881 several favorable changes have been made by the Gov. ernment relative to school buildings and their equipment, and higher institutions have been established, so that the general prospects are more promising than formerly; but the latest results can not be shown as yet. Primary schools, how maintained.-Public and private primary schools are maintained either by religious corporations and associations, or by communities, provinces, and the state. The law of 1857 made primary instruction obligatory upon all children and gratuitous for those who could not pay tuition fees; a law of 1868 extended this gratuity to all pupils. Parents are free to choose whether their children shall be instructed in public or in private schools or at home. Secondary instruction.-Every province is obliged under the law to maintain one or two institutos (i. e., classical schools for secondary instruction). Each of these institutos has in affiliation with it or under the supervision of its officers a number of local colegios. See Schmid's Encyclopädie des Erziehungswesens ; Buisson's Dictionnaire de pédagogie, Tome I: Compilacion legislativa de instruccion pública, Tomo I. * See Buisson's Dictionnaire de pédagogie, Tome I, and Compilacion legislativa de instruccion pública, Tomo II. Universities.-There are ten universities partly supported by the State. The fees largely cover the expenses of the universities. The Government also supports numerous special schools. DETAILED VIEW OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. A statistical work, Reseña geográfica y estadística, prepared by Sr. Ibañez, giving a detailed view of the operations of the primary schools in1880, and a report covering the year 1835 enable us to compare the condition of education at the beginning and the end of the half decade. The number of pupils enrolled in public primary schools in 1880 was 1,442,577, in 1885 it was 1,552,434, or an increase of 74 per cent. The enrollment in private primary schools, which in 1880 was 326,879, had fallen to 290,749 in 1885, or a decline of 11 per cent. The enrollment in both public and private schools in 1885 was 1,843,183, as against 1,769,456 in 1880. The enrollment in public primary schools in 1885 was equivalent to 9 per cent. of the population (census of 1887), while the enrollment in private schools increased the number to 10 per cent. of that population. The average attendance, public and private schools included, does not show improvement, standing in 1880 at 73 per cent. of the enrollment and in 1885 at 70 per cent. Sr. Ibañez notes the good effects of the compulsory law up to 1880. "This law," he says, "has accomplished remarkable results. The census of 1860 and the census of 1877 show a difference in the number of illiterates, a difference in favor of the latter census. Of 100 inhabit ants only 20 could read and write in 1860; in 1877 we find 25. Data are wanting for carrying this comparison to 1885. The relative number of boys and girls enrolled in the two years may be seen from the following: The distribution by age in the public schools was as follows: The expenses for primary instruction are borne by the municipal districts, the provinces, and the State. 1 Republished in the Boletin de enseñanza primaria, Montevideo. All the statistics given in this article for the year 1835 have been drawn from the above report, all relating to 1880 from the work of Sr. Ibañez. The comparative estimates have been made in this Office. State grants.-For the year 1879-80 the sum of $4,060,828 was included in the general appropriation for education. It was distributed as follows: Salaries of teachers in Infant schools Schools for boys. Schools for girls.. Mixed schools..... Schools for adults and Sunday schools Compensation agreed upon between the teachers and the municipal councils in lieu of residences.... Total...... Material-Construction, maintenance of school buildings and houses for teachers...... School material and other expenditures... Expenses for local school counsellors and prizes for pupils Total...... $91,445 1,408, 989 762, 225 337,230 42, 402 305, 697 $2,947,988 446, 495 639,455 26, 890 .$1, 112, 840 Provincial appropriations-For the same year (1879-80) the sum for primary instruction included in the provincial appropriations amounted to $339,850, i. e., $275,762 for salaries and $64,088 for school material, which sums were distributed as follows: Schools for girls in provincial charitable institutions. 27,700 13, 216 Gradual increase of teachers' salaries in public schools of the provinces Total...... $275, 762 $64, 088 $339, 850 The expenditures for the year 1885 amounted to $4,909,481, of which $3,614,156 were paid for teachers' salaries and $1,295,325 for material. ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION. State authorities.-According to the law of 1857 the highest educational authority is the minister of education and public works, etc. (ministro de fomento); under him there is a general director with a council (consejo de instruccion pública). There is also at least one inspector for every province. These officers are appointed by the King and are responsible to the minister. In 1885 they numbered fifty for the inspection of primary schools, besides three general inspectors for normal schools.1 1 For complete register of officials see Anuario estadístico de instrucción pública, 1889, pp. 3-21. |