1 in school (XIV, pp. 391–2), due in part to the distance between schools in poorly settled districts and in part to a want of united effort on the part of the authorities in regard to school matters. (VI, pp. 1056–1098.) The number of children registered (inscripções) in 1888-89 as receiv ing elementary instruction (instrucção primaria) in the Municipio Neutro and in the provinces was 266,100, in 8,064 schools, but a careful investigation of the tabulated statements from the different provinces shows that this number includes pupils in asylums, apprenticeship schools, schools established by aid societies, evening schools, two agricultural schools, a farm school, etc. Separated from these institutions the numbers read: Public elementary schools (escolas publicas), 6,530; pupils, 207,973; private schoois (escolas particulares), 989; pupils, 29,846. The private schools include subsidized and non-subsidized schools. The secondary and higher grades (escolas secundarias e superior) grouped together present a total of 24,898 students in 138 schools. Included in this number are 25 normal schools (escolas nor maes) with 3,544 pupils; the college of Dom Pedro II, which is a sort of faculty of letters, has 569 students; the 2 faculties of medicine (faculdade de medicina) report 240 students (at the faculty in Rio), and 705 at Bahia; the 2 faculties of law (faculdade de direito) report 535 students at São Paulo (in 1884) and 858 at Récife; the polytechnic (escola polytechnica) has 161 students, and the school of mines at Ouro Preto (escola de minas de Ouro Preto) has 79 students. Included also under the totals for secondary and higher education are military and naval schools, theological schools, each diocese having a seminary for theological instruction, lyceums, and schools established by various societies. (VI, pp. 1020-1053; I, pp. 1-104 and A-B.) The elementary school age is nominally from 6 to 15 years, but in reality the lower elementary grades are open to children of 5 years of age, while an extension of from 12 to 18 years of age is accorded to the higher elementary grades. (VI, p. 278.) Coeducation is not allowed by law, the boys being taught by men and the girls by women, but about the year 1885 Dom Pedro II established a number of schools where boys and girls recited together, but outside of the recitation rooms they were kept apart. About 500 of these schools are reported in 1888-89. (VI, pp. 520, 708-721, 10201053; VII, p. 278.) III.-FINANCES. Income. The schools are supported by taxes imposed by the central government, as voted by the Chamber of Deputies, seconded by local taxation in each province. The government provides for the elementary and secondary schools of Rio and its environs, and for higher education throughout the Republic. The provincial authorities provide the funds for elementary and secondary schools of the provinces (XI, p. 183; IX, p. 238; XIV, p. 392). The amounts voted for the schools vary in the different provinces as the authorities realize the need of funds to carry out the plan of gratuitous instruction imposed by the constitution, of providing free text-books, and of clothing poor children so that they can attend school. In high schools and colleges a fee is charged. The provincial and state funds amounted to $5,639,255 in 1888. In 1887-88 the budget for Rio and environs was $305,858. (XIV, p. 574; VII, p. 278; XI, 183; VI, p. 1054.) Expenditures.-The expenditures for school purposes throughout Brazil have averaged, according to tabulated statements, over $5,000,000 annually during the last 5 years, that is from 1884 to 1889 (VI, p. 1054). The total expenditures for public instruction in 1889 in the 20 provinces and the federal district, or Municipio Neutro (VII, p. 278), which includes Rio and its environs, were $5,217,539; the expenditures by the government at the same date for elementary, secondary, and higher instruction were $1,746,153, but this does not include expenditures for professional education in the military arsenals, for text-books of a scientific character, and other similar expenses. The state expenditures for higher education throughout the Empire were $405,234 in 1889. The state and provincial appropriations for the year 1890 were $5,310,841; government alone $1,913,383. The amounts to be expended for teachers' wages, incidentals, etc., are not specified. (VI, pp. 1054-1056, tables.) IV.-SUPERVISION AND ADMINISTRATION. State.-Education is under state and local supervision. An inspector-general' of public instruction, who forms with his aids a division of the "ministerio dos negocios" has direct charge of the schools in the Municipio Neutro. This central administration, which has also a governing influence over education throughout the country, consists of the inspector-general, and a higher council of studies composed of well known educators, four of its members being subject to election and seventeen being persons delegated by the district authorities, eleven of them from Rio alone (VII, pp. 152, 278). The inspector-general, who fulfils the functions of a minister of education, can neither be a professor nor a director of an institution. His duties are to have charge, either personally or through the members of the higher council, or through the delegates in the different provinces, of all educational institutions of Brazil; to preside at the examinations of professors and instructors and confer diplomas; to authorize the opening of schools and revise classical text-books or to replace them by others, if need be; to combine the reports forwarded to him from the different provinces with his own, and compare them with his annual report of education in the Municipio Neutro, so as to observe how far the schools of the federal The newly appointed minister of education seems to have taken the place of the inspector. district have served as models for the schools of the provinces; to so organize public instruction at the capital that it may serve as a mode! for the provinces; to prepare regulations by which all schools are t be governed and to formulate rules for the examination of professors and assistant teachers; to appoint teachers, and indicate when their salaries shall be increased and when they shall be pensioned; to suggest the establishment of elementary schools, and to indicate when it is advisable to extend the course in the college of Dom Pedro II by the establishment of new chairs. (VI, pp. 266-270.) The council of education, with the inspector-general as presiding officer, has for its duties the investigation of the best methods and systems of public instruction, the choice and revision of text-books, discipline in private and public schools, the form and programme for examinations, etc. The council is consulted in regard to all subjects appertaining to elementary and secondary instruction. (VI, p. 268.) In the capital, elementary and secondary schools are under the direct supervision of the minister. In the provinces he delegates his authority to the head of the provincial government. (VII, p. 152.) Local.-Each province has its provincial assembly, which decides questions appertaining to elementary and secondary education. The governor of a province-there are twenty provinces-is in charge of public instruction in that province. He is aided by superintendents or general inspectors, while, as local officers, there are district school committees and local committees, which usually have two teachers "emeritus "-that is, those who have had twenty years' service as teachers-connected with them (VII, pp. 278, 286). The superintend ents visit annually all the schools in their division, and each one publishes an annual report. The district delegates visit the schools once a month, and report to the minister every three months (VII, p. 152). The local school committee attends to the management of the schools. Private schools are also under the supervision of the school authorities and must submit to inspection as far as morality and hygiene are concerned. (VII, p. 278.) V.-TEACHERS. Preparation. Teachers are prepared for the position which they desire to occupy either at the College of Dom Pedro II, or at the "Escolas Normaes" (normal schools) in Rio and in the provinces (X, p. 164). There are also pedagogical courses connected with several secondary schools. (VII, p. 278.) Examinations and licensing.-The diploma of the normal school, or of the courses in pedagogy in secondary schools, is a prerequisite for the teacher's position (VII, p. 286). If, however, the applicant be a col. lege graduate a special license may be obtained. If he be a foreigner he must have a diploma from a university or pass an examination (XI, p. 183). A certificate is accorded after a certain number of years' serv. ice as assistant teacher in the lower elementary grades, if the theoret ical and practical examination is passed, and this certificate is required. if an increase of salary is desired. The questions for the examination of teachers are determined each year by the Council of Studies (VII, p. 286). Candidates for the position of teacher must be at least twentyone years of age, and twenty-five years if the aspirant desires to be the principal of a school. (X, p. 164; XII, pp. 45, 46.) Appointment. The Government appoints teachers throughout the country and they are chosen from the graduates of normal schools or from the assistant teachers who have passed the requisite examinations for assistant teachers in lower grade schools, receiving a diploma for the same, and who have had at least three months' experience. After five years' service a teacher may be appointed for life. Changes in location are authorized by the provincial department of instruction. (VII, p. 279; XI, p. 183). In order to open a private school the teacher must be provided with a certificate of morality and capacity. (VII, p. 278.) Salaries.-Teachers' salaries are said to be the same for men and women. If the third examination has been passed, teachers receive about $33 a month salary; prior to that, as assistants, they get from $15 to $30 a month. (VII, pp. 278, 279, 286.) Marked differences in salary are noticeable, however. The largest cities pay at least $579 a year to a lower-grade teacher, and from $675 to $739 to elementary teachers of the higher grade. In the city of Rio a higher grade of salary is reached, however. Free lodging and ground around the house are also allowed. For each pupil who succeeds in passing the examination, a certain premium is accorded to the teacher. When the regulation number of 30 per class is exceeded, 33 cents a month is accorded to the instructor for each boy added to the class limit, and 50 cents a month for each additional girl. (VII, p. 279.) Teachers' pensions.-After ten years' service as a teacher, a pension is accorded which is sufficient for the teacher to insure his life. After fif teen years' service the amount is augmented 25 per cent.; after twenty years, he becomes a teacher "emeritus." (VII, p. 279.) Teachers' institutes.-A decree establishing "conferencias pedagogicas" (teachers' conferences) was promulgated in 1872, and as a result of this decree, the first conferences were held in Rio in 1873. These gatherings seemed to be of great interest to teachers, and many pedagogical questions were discussed, among them, the subject of coeducation. Over 500 of these conferences were reported in Brazil between the dates 1872 and 1889. (VI, pp. 514-520, 852-860.) In 1883 the "Congresso do Instrucção," held in Rio, brought together the most prominent educators of the country. (VI, p. 785.) This association was divided into two sections, the first taking up questions appertaining to elementary, secondary, and professional education; the second section discussing higher education. The discus sions covered reorganization, courses of study in different grades, normal training, technical branches, etc. Educational progress in other nations was brought before the assembly in the various papers presented. An outgrowth of this congress was the "Primiera Exposicção Pedagogica do Rio de Janeiro," held in 1884. This, the first pedagogical exhibit of the country, was stated to be of incalculable benefit to teachers, as by means of it they were able to form some estimate of progress in education as realized in other countries. (III, pp. 17, 18; VI, pp. 810-814.) VI.-COURSES OF STUDY. The grades of schools are, as stated above, the elementary, which with its two divisions corresponds with the primary and grammar grades of the United States; the secondary, which corresponds with the high and academic grades of the United States; and the schools for higher education (XI, p. 183). Classed under elementary, on account of the course of study, are a few normals and lyceums, the remainder coming under secondary or higher instruction. Also classed under secondary instruction are asylums for those who have no one to care for them, although not necessarily orphans (VII, p. 785), evening schools for adults, and preparatory schools for apprentice boys desiring to enter the naval or military service (VI, pp. 1020-1053). The schedule of studies for all elementary institutions includes: Lower grade primaries. Portuguese grammar. Higher grade primaries. Reading, writing. Geography, national history. Natural history. Arithmetic, systems of weights and Applied arithmetic, geometry. measures. Religion, morals. Sewing (in girls' schools). (VII, 278.) Sacred history and Christian doctrine. (VII, p. 278.) By decree of April 19, 1879,' the following branches were added for the elementary schools in the "Municipio Neutro," which, as before stated, serve as a model for similar grades in the provinces: By this decree a kindergarten was to be established in each district of the "Municipio Neutro." |