The secondary schools include in their course of study Portuguese, French, English, and Latin languages; arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; geography, history, rhetoric, mental and moral philosophy (XI, p. 183).

The College of Dom Pedro II, which occupies the highest rank among secondary institutions, has a seven-years' course of study in two divisions leading to the degree of B. lit., and admitting to higher schools without other examination (XX, p. CCLIX). Its course of study is as follows: Languages, Latin, Greek, English, French, German, and Italian; literature, Portuguese language and literature; rhetoric and poetry, mental and moral philosophy; history, general and national; geogra phy, cosmography, and chorography of Brazil; arithmetic, algebra to equations of second degree, geometry, and trigonometry; natural sciences, physics, and chemistry; drawing, music, dancing, and gymnas tics. (VI, p. 275; X, p. 157.)

The normal schools vary in character, but, as in other countries, their main object is to prepare teachers for both city and rural schools. In order that the normal students may be cognizant of the products of the earth and of the industries appertaining thereto, courses in horticul ture were established in some of the schools similar to courses reported in France, Austria, and Germany (VI, pp. 743-744). The regular course of study in the higher class normals in Brazil may be judged from a proposed reorganization of the "Escola Normal da Corte" at Rio, as suggested at the "Congresso do Instrucção" of 1883. The course, to cover four years, is as follows:

This proposed reorganization must have been carried out in part, as it is stated that a decree of October 13, 1888, modified this plan to a certain extent. The course was to be limited to three years. The studies were to include religion, moral and civic education, with elements of political economy; Portuguese, elements of Portuguese history and literature; French; geography, particularly that of Brazil history, and above all that of Brazil to the present day; arithmetic and elements of algebra; bookkeeping for pupil teachers; geometry, elements of physics, chem

istry, botany, zoölogy, and geology, with the principal applications of these sciences; writing, drawing, vocal music; manual training for pupil teachers, and sewing for girls; gymnastics and military exercises. Criticisms of this change in the course of study were noticed, and it may not have been carried out. (VI, pp. 962-963.)

Classed under higher education are the two faculties of medicine at Rio and Bahia, which with a six-years' curriculum cover medicine and surgery, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany and zoölogy, gynæcology, and pharmaceutics (IX, p. 239; X, p. 197). The two faculties of law have each a five-years' course covering natural and administrative laws, civil, public,' Roman, ecclesiastical, constitutional, criminal, and commercial laws; also procedure before the courts, political economy, etc., (I, pp. 11,12; XIX; XVIII). The polytechnic school, a development since 1874 of the "Escola Centrale," in which school were taught scientific branches and military engineering, has undergone many transformations since that period. In addition to its preparatory and general courses, it has a special three-years course for natural sciences, a similar one for mathematics, one for engineers and geographers, one for civil engineers, one for mining, and one for arts and industries. Its laboratories are especially well equipped (IX, p. 239; XII, pp. 45, 46; VIII, p. 657). The "Escola de Minas de Ouro Preto" includes in its elementary course arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, botany, and zoology; in its higher course, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, mining, mechanics, descriptive geometry, analytical geometry, topography and surveying, geology, assaying, metallurgy, applied mechanics, stereotomy, and the securing excavations with timber (IV, p. 165). There are courses of study in naval construction in the higher national schools. The higher branches of military science and engineering, which formerly were taught in the central college, are now a part of the polytechnic course, and there are regular schools for military and naval science, artillery practice, etc. (IX, p. 239.)

VII.-SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF DISCIPLINE.

Methods and management.-In regard to school management it is stated that by a decree of November 6, 1883, enforced from January, 1881, the following regulations were applied to the lower clementary schools of the "Municipio Neutro," which schools, as mentioned above, are inodels for the whole country. The principal is responsible for the management of the school. A teacher usually has charge of about 30 children, although 40, and sometimes 50 boys or girls are under the charge of one teacher. If there are more than 50 pupils he must have an assistant; if more than 100 pupils, 2 assistants, and 3 assistants if there are 150

Direito publico: Laws which govern the whole social body in contradistinction to those governing each individual as such. Direito civil: Laws appertaining to each people or nation in contradistinction to laws common to all nations. Direito natural: Laws that govern the human race.

pupils. The principal must by his example inculcate habits of neatness, morality, and good breeding. He must be at his desk 15 minutes before school opens, and remain until the close of school. He must maintain order and regularity in the class, and try to make himself beloved by his pupils. He must be ever ready to furnish verbal or written information to the authorities in regard to schools, and permit persons to visit the classes, if no disturbance is caused by it. He must report at the end of each trimester as to the enrollment and average attendance. He must see that religious instruction' limits itself to the sign of the cross, the Lord's prayer, and the angelical salutation recited at the opening of the school for the lowest class; for the second class, the apostles' creed and a prayer to the virgin are to be added; for the higher class, the ten commandments, and those of the church, the works of charity, and the seven sacraments. Added to this, moral teachings are to be inculcated mostly by, example, and it is considered the duty of the principal to thoroughly imbue his pupils with the love of God, love of country, etc. (VI, pp. 803–807.)

Discipline.-A general statement in regard to management and methods throughout the country is as follows: Corporal punishment is positively forbidden in the schools. (XI, p. 183; VII, p. 278.) If the teachers do not properly fulfill their functions they are subject to censure, suspension, dismissal, and in extreme cases they are forbidden to teach again. (II, p. 366.)

Promotion of pupils.-Promotions are made from elementary to secondary schools through examinations given by the teachers; from the secondary to the higher grades on the basis of governmental examinations arranged by the minister of education, i. e., the inspector-general. (XI, p. 183.)

Formation of school programmes.-The formation of school programmes is left to the principal, and no elementary school of either grade can be opened until the Government has been informed in regard to the programme of studies. (X, p. 165.)

Text-books are provided by the department of public instruction, and the best text-books in use are translated from French, German, aud English sources; still, any book may be adopted save those expressly forbidden. (XI, p. 183; X, p. 165.)

VIII.-SCHOOL ORGANIZATION.

Buildings and grounds.-Public edifices are constructed from the plans and under the direction of national architects, and it is stated that city schoolhouses are fairly well built. (VI, p. xxiv.) In the rural districts an inferior class of buildings is reported. (XI, p. 183.) The

Since the establishment of the Republic religious instruction is omitted in the state schools, and these religious exercises may possibly be omitted also, although this is not distinctly stated. (XVI, p. 94.)

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size of rooms, seating of pupils, and conduct of schools have been discussed by those interested in bringing about educational reforms in Brazil, but the decisions are not known to date. (II, pp. 336-340.)

Hours of school-Holidays.-The hours for school are from 9 to 12 a. m., and 2 to 5 p. m., Monday to Saturday inclusive, except on national and religious holidays. What these holidays are is not specified. A month's vacation in the schools at Christmas is reported, however. (XI, p. 183.)

Compulsory attendance.-Attendance is compulsory in the schools, and in the larger cities where there are graded courses the law is carried out to a certain extent. Most of the provincial councils have also voted for this measure, but have been unable to enforce it. (VII, p. 278.) No distinction is made in schools as to color; blacks and whites are admitted on equal terms. (XI, p. 183.)

IX.-SUPPLEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS.

Libraries and museums.-Among the institutions which serve as aids to intellectual growth are the "Museu Nacional" at Rio with its ethnological and paleontological collections, and the "Bibliotheca Nacionale," which possesses 170,631 volumes, 1,761 specimens of Brazilian flora, 30,000 engravings, 12,000 manuscripts, etc. (VI, p. 845.) There are also many school and society libraries in Rio, and in the larger cities of the provinces public libraries supported by the provincial authorities. In addition there are libraries connected with the majority of colleges and academies. Provincial museums, too, are quite numer ous, many of them containing material especially valuable to those who are carrying on scientific or educational work. (XII, pp. 45, 46.) In Rio the "Museu Escolar Nacional," established in 1883, has, as its statutes indicate, five sections, viz: (1) Legislative, administrative, and statistical documents relating to education. (2) Didactic and other pedagogical works. (3) Plans for the construction of school buildings. (4) Types of school furniture. (5) School furnishing and apparatus, models, geographical, scientific, and technological collections, etc. (V, pp. 1-7, 1-9; VI, pp. 810-816.)

Societies. Other aids to progress in education are educational and scientific societies in Rio and the provincial capitals. (VI,pp. XXIX, XXX.) Among them are the "Instituto Historico, Geografico e Ethnografico" (Historical, Geographical, and Ethnological Institute) of Brazil; the "Gabinete Portuguez de Leitura," with over 70,000 volumes in its library; the "Sociedade Propagadora das Bellas Artes" (Society for Art Culture) with its schools; the "Conservatorio de Musica" (Conserv. atory of Music); the "Sociedade Amante da Instrucção" (Society for Promoting Education), which maintains several elementary schools, and an asylum for orphans, and has courses in French, Latin, stenography, linear drawing, music, etc.; the "Lyceu Litterario Portuguez,"

which has professional courses, and aims in every way to develop popular education. (VI, pp. 748, 760-768, 928-933; I, pp. 64-67.) There are many other societies with a similar object in view, and also numerous lecture courses on scientific subjects, for which a merely nominal fee is charged. (XII, pp. 45, 46.)

School savings banks. -School savings banks were established by a decree of April 19, 1879, which called for such institutions in each school district of Rio. In the province of Pernambuco a decree regulating public instruction instituted school savings banks as a part of the regular school programme. The statute refers to them as "of great educational value," and as "of the utmost importance in connection with a thorough civic education." (VI, pp. 645-646; XXI.)

Schools for special classes.-As a means of educating the special classes there are such schools as the "Instituto dos Surdos Mudos" (Institute for the Deaf and Dumb), which, founded in 1826, and supported by the Government since 1868, has an elementary course of study, and gives instruction in boot and shoe making, bookbinding, horticulture, and floriculture; the "Instituto dos Meninos Cégos" (Institute for the Blind), with both elementary and secondary courses, and with complete instruction in vocal and instrumental music, harmony, rules of counterpoint and instrumentation, typographical art, bookbinding, and piano-tuning, and for the girls needle-work; the asylums maintained by the "Sociedade Portugueza de Beneficencia; " by the "Sociedade S. Francisco de Paula;" by the "Sociedade Amante de Instrucção "-all of which have elementary courses and generally instruction leading to a trade. Added to these is the institute "Providencia," where the native population of the provinces of Amazona and Para is taught such trades as blacksmithing, carpentry, tailoring, the mason's and locksmith's trade, etc. They also receive instruction in the elementary branches, the rights of citizenship, and Christian doctrine. (VI.pp. 983-992, 846-847, 971-973, 1006-1010, 750-752; X, pp. 201-206; I, pp. 62-63.)

X.-HISTORICAL STATEMENT.

The history of education in Brazil may be traced to the advent of the Jesuits from Portugal, in 1549, and the establishment of numerous schools by that order in different parts of the country, during the period preceding the events which led to the expulsion of the Order in 1758-60. A school founded by one of the fathers at São Vicente may be said to be the cradle of elementary instruction in Brazil. At the beginning of the eighteenth century are noticed the first traces of official intervention in regard to the studies directed by the Jesuits. The municipality controlled education until the first quarter of the present century. Since then a tendency towards centralization is noticeable. In 1730 instructors and professors were called "ministros de lettras," and were consulted by the highest authorities. Secondary studies at an early date