were found only in Episcopal seminaries, where arithmetic, algebra, geometry, Latin, Greek, rhetoric, and philosophy were studied. For higher branches students went to the University of Coimbra, in Portugal. The secularization of education in the early part of the eighteenth century brought about the so-called "Letters Patent," which aimed at reorganizing the studies of Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and rhetoric, and to bring about a higher intellectual development. Royal letters of November 10, 1772, established a "literary subsidy" for the special main. tenance of primary schools. This was supplemented by a decree of October 17, 1795, by which the municipal authorities were to use the amount raised by such taxation for the payment of teachers and professors. And again, on July 6, 1797, the subsidy was placed under the control of the boards of finance of that period (VI, pp. 3, 9-13, 22-45, 58, 60-63). In 1816 this library subsidy was repealed; on March 16, 1816, a director-general of studies was created, and the municipal chambers ceased to have a direct influence upon education (VI, pp. 6063).

From 1808 to 1818 date many of the higher institutions of learning, such as a naval academy in 1808; medical and surgical courses in 1809; in 1812 a medical and surgical board, which could confer the baccalaureaute and doctor's degrees; in 1814 schools of agriculture and botany and a commercial school; in 1813 the nucleus of a public library at Rio, formed by the sending of 50,000 volumes from Lisbon; in 1818 the National Museum at Rio was established. During this same period elementary education was not neglected, and according to the law of October 20, 1823, any citizen could open an elementary school without having to pass an examination or obtain any license or authorization. Monitorial schools according to the Lancastrian system were next attempted, and a ministerial decree of August 22, 1825, urged the necessity of establishing such schools. (VI, pp. 96, 100-106, 132, 163-167.) The next step was to formulate a law-October 15, 1827by which a sufficient number of elementary schools for those des ring to attend school were to be established in cities, towns, and populated districts. From the formation of the constitution in 1824 to the laws of 1851 and 1854, which form the basis of the present educational sys tem in Brazil, various progressive efforts were made. In the provinces the general councils of education created elementary schools for both boys and girls and founded chairs for secondary instruction, which included the studies of philosophy, rhetoric, geometry, French, and agriculture; faculties of medicine were created in 1832 to take the place of the former courses in medicine (VI, pp. 177-186); reforms in the constitution in 1834 brought about a number of laws and decrees appertaining to education, but there was little plan or method in the arrangements made (VI, p. 191); teachers' wages were increased in Rio, but suitable training for teachers by means of normal schools, etc., was not chronicled till a later date. (VI, pp. 193-195.) In 1836 a

special control and inspection of elementary schools in the capital were established, and a director of schools free from municipal surveillance was created. (VI, p. 196.) From 1837 date the first attempts towards a faculty of philosophy in the establishment of the College of Dom Pedro II. (VI, pp. 237-249.) In 1840 with the advent of Dom Pedro II upon the throne (XVII, p. 110), new constitutional reforms were cffected. At that date Brazil had a population of 6,000,000 inhabitants. As 2,500,000 of them were natives and slaves they formed no part of the school population, but even then only about 1 school to 520 pupils was reported. (VI, p. 229.) This lack of schools was so manifest that in 1845 the Government was authorized to furnish funds for school buildings and apparatus, and in 1847 a commission was appointed to visit both public and private schools-the Government's intervention in private schools is here noticed for the first time. (VI, p. 233.) To the present day more attention had been given to secondary and higher education than to the elementary grades, and a reorganization of elementary instruction was said to be absolutely essential. A vote of the Chamber of Deputies, September 17, 1851, gave the Government full power to reorganize elementary education in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro, and this act was supplemented by a decree of February 17, 1854, which holds good to the present time. These decrees extended public instruction, exacted better training for teachers, required proofs of capacity, investigated the pay of teachers, regulated private instruction, appointed inspectors for the schools of the capital, and placed the organization of secondary instruction in charge of the provincial assemblies. (VI, pp. 229-239.) From 1854 on, general progressive movements were noted in schools of the provinces, and extraordinary efforts were made by the Government to develop public instruction in all parts of the Empire. Evening schools were opened for adults and day workmen. Methods of instruction in the capital were improved upon; additional schools were opened; new school buildings supplied with modern apparatus were built; the best text-books adopted by the authorities were translated from French, German, and English sources; teachers' salaries were increased; poor children were given suitable clothing so that they could attend school, and even text-books were furnished them; large sums of money were voted annually by the Government for higher instruction throughout the Empire, and for elementary and secondary instruction in the capital and its environs. (VI, pp. 1054-1056; XV, p. 540; VII, p. 278.) With the abolition of slavery in 1871, special measures were taken to educate all children born to that class. (VII, p. 278.) Progress in higher intellectual development was brought about by the fact that in Brazil, as in other countries-Germany and Italy, for instance-many situations under Government require proficiency in practical mathematics and natural history, and hence a taste for such studies was encouraged. The advent of foreign engineers and naturalists also gave the people knowledge of late achievements in Europe in regard to mathematical and ex

perimental sciences. (IX, p. 239.) The discussions before the Camara dos Deputados (Chamber of Deputies) from year to year in regard to reform of elementary education have brought out many facts appertaining to educational movements in other countries, and the result of these combined efforts has been to cause marked progress in educational matters in Brazil within the last twenty years. (VI, pp. 1056-1096.)

A tabulated statement of the amounts given for education in the provinces and by the state from 1874-75 on, will exemplify this to a certain extent, although the lack of school statistics from year to year militates against a clear exposition of the gradual increase in school facilities during that period.

Total appropriations for public instruction in the provinces and in the "Municipio Neutro."

Appropriations by the state for elementary, secondary, and higher instruction.'

Incomplete returns in 1874-75 for 18 out of the 20 provinces gave 5,562 elementary schools, with 169,895 pupils. Data for the succeeding years are not available, but in 1889-90 this number had increased to 8,064 schools, with 266,100 pupils. That is, in 16 years an increase of 2,502 elementary schools and of 96,205 pupils is observable, and during the same period the total appropriations for public instruction increased $2,053,744, and the state appropriations $816,366. And yet it is stated that the result of such expenditure is not especially satisfactory. The cause of this is, the lack of density of population in many of the prov inces; the non-enforcement of laws pertaining to school attendance; the indifference of parents in regard to the education of their children, and lastly, a lack of unity in school matters, a spirit of local pride dominating that national spirit which would bring about a centralization of educational interests, and with that a national system of education. (VI, pp. 579, 1015-1056.)

These do not include professional instruction in the naval and military arsenals, nor amounts for printing educational and scientific works.