CHAPTER II. A COMPARISON OF THE SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES, GERMANY, AND FRANCE. Distinctive Features of American and German Schools, with Historic References-Statistics of the Schools of Prussia (Diagram I, II, III)-Other Items of Interest Concerning the People's Schools in Prussia-A Foreigner's Views of German Schools-Statistics of Schools in America-Criticism of American Schools-Statistics of the Schools in France-Criticism of the French Schools-Summary of Comparative Statistics (Diagrams)-Other Points of Comparison-Distinctive Features of the Courses of Study in Prussia-Graphic Presentation of the Courses of Study-Explanatory Remarks to Charts I-IV-Number of Hours per Week Devoted to the Different Branches-Causes of Rapid Advancement in the Studies-Typical Courses of Study for Prussian High Schools, Prussian Middle Schools, French Superior Elementary Schools, and French Lycées or Classical Schools-An American Opinion of the Vital Differences-French Students in German High Schools-An Englishman's Opinion of German Schools. SOURCES OF INFORMATION.-Historical: (1) Das Preussische Schulwesen, Schneider and von Bremen--(2) Das höhere Schulwesen, Wiese-(3) Recueil des Lois et Actes de l'Instruction Publique, Paris-(4) Schmid's Encyclopaedie der Erziehung und des Unterrichtswesens-(5) Dittes Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts — (6) Karl Schmidt's Geschichte der Erziehung-(7) Hahn's Unterrichtswesen in Frankreich. Statistical: (1) The Statesman's Yearbook—(2) Richter's Jahresbericht of 1887-88--(3) Das preussische Schulwesen, see above-(4) Annual Report of Inspector-General, M. Buisson-(5) Reports of the Bureau of Education for 1885, '86 and '×7—(6) Allgemeine Schulzeitung, Leipsic. Miscellaneous Sources: (1) Sonnenschein's Encyclopedia of Education-(2) Dr. Laishley's Report of the Schools in Europe and America-(3) Stundenpline der Gymnasien, by Uhlich-(4) Lehrpläne für höhere Schulen—(5) Plan d'Etudes des Lycées—(6) Lois et Actes de l'Instruction Publique, (1881, 1886)--(7) Das Unterrichtswesen des preussischen Staates, by Rönne~(8) Das deutsche Schulwesen nach seiner historischen Entwicklung,by Dr. Mascher-(9) "European Schools," by Dr. L. R. Klemm-(10) A great number of annual catalogues of German schools—(11) The current educational press in Europe and America. L.-DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS, WITH HISTORICAL REFERENCES. The German "people's school" is a historic growth. Its beginnings. date back a thousand years, but not until the time of the Reformation did it assume the shape of a school for the masses; not until then did it draw into the pale of its influence the lower and lowest strata of soci ety. It has at all times felt the influence of political, religious, and social commotion and had to accommodate itself to the ruling spirit of the times. A frequently quoted political axiom in Germany is (in literal translation): "He who has the school commands the future." From being the handmaid of the church, as in Luther's time, the German school-to use a collective title-became a powerful auxiliary of the state at the beginning of the present century, a time of political disaster, and ever since it has, mirror-like, reflected the different phases of the political life of the nation. While there are many points of similarity between the German and the American school, yet the German school is not a common school. In this respect the "primary school" in France, in theory at least, comes much nearer our ideal than the German "people's school." Germany has been for more than a thousand years (with short interrals) an empire consisting of more or less independent sovereign states. Hence the establishment and management of schools in Germany are, as in this country, matters of local concern, like all other matters not pertaining to the defense of the nation or its intercourse with foreign powers. The schools are supported partially by the state; partially by the communities. 12.02 per cent. of the expenses are borne by the state, which thereby derives the right of legislation regarding courses of study, supervision, etc.; 87 per cent. of the expenses are borne by communities, which secures them the choice of sites, erection of buildings, and election of teachers; endowments and even private enterprise contribute something to this work. The government of the German schools is a most intricate affair, since there is no uniformity except in the people's schools. There is nowhere in Germany a system of national schools such as was contemplated by the foremost thinkers of the French Revolution, or is desired and advocated by German reformers of to-day. Though a powerful sentiment is now awake in Germany to make the schools of the empire truly national in character and organization, free of charge, and common to all; and though many teachers, mindful of the social tendency of the nineteenth century, are supporting the idea of a common school ("Einheits-Schule") for Germany, first of course for each separate state, it is a fact that as yet there is a great variety of schools in existence, perhaps a natural outgrowth of the independent mode of thinking of the people. The people's school (Volks-Schule) in its extent, organization, management, and results, perhaps, is the nearest approach to a common school. This, then, must be borne in mind when contemplating the structure of the German school system. The variety of schools of which it is composed is so great that it puzzles the collector of statistics who has to classify them, about as much as the nomenclature of American private secondary schools does. That the differentiation in German society must be reflected in its schools is self-evident, if we consider that in a monarchy an aristocracy is an absolute necessity. A king of citizens of equal social rights is an anomaly. A monarch must needs have a pedestal, which is ED 89-3 found in an ascending scale of society. The American common school is the expression of social democracy, Lease it is a contradiction to the mo narchical system. IL-STATISTICS OF THE SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA. D.ferent strata of society in Germany have diferent schools. For the purpose of comparison they may be classed in three groups. (A, Lower schools, or the people's schools so called. They are purely elementary and attended by both sexes. 'B, Middle schools: 'a; the citizens' schools for boys, b, the girls' acad emies. Both are more extended in scope and course than the people's schools. (C) High schools: (a, the "Realschule," by the "Gymnasium," (c) the "Real-Gymnasium." These are the schools which prepare for the university and polytechuicum. This classification in three groups, lower, middle, and higher schools, is somewhat arbitrary, but it is convenient and sufficiently minute for practical purposes. Though there is a great variety among the schools in each of these groups, it is particularly puzzling in Group II, middle schools. The subjoined diagrams may illustrate the organization and composite nature of the German school in contradistinction to the simplicity of or ganization of the American school. Since reliable and minute statistics from all states of Germany are not available, those of Prussia, the leadand largest state, are used as a basis of comparison. It is reasonable to suppose that they are indicative of the essential facts in other parts of the empire. The population of Prussia, according to the census of 1885, was 28,318,470. This number is taken because no satisfactory estimate for 1887 is published, and the school statistics graphically presented in Diagram II are of the year 1887, the latest available to this Bureau. Ac cording to the information at hand there were Children enrolled in the people's schools........ Children enrolled in preparatory elementary classes with a view toward entering middle and high schools...... Students attending the middle schools... Students attending the high schools.. Total number of pupils enrolled in Prussia..... 4,874, 347 299,280 203,310 153,602 5,530,539 According to these numbers we see that of the population there (a) Besides the 4,874,317 children between six and fourteen years enrolled in the people's schools there were 170,439 children (between six and fourteen) who had either not entered school yet for reasons unknown (perhaps physical weakness), or had left school before reaching the maximum age. (b) Thirteen thousand five hundred and nineteen did not attend the people's schools, being either idiotic, blind, deaf, or otherwise crippled. These unfortunates can be found accounted for in reports of institutions for the blind, deaf, and imbecile. (c) Eight thousand eight hundred and twenty-six children had to be denied admittance for want of room. (d) Three thousand one hundred and forty-five children were not even enrolled, despite the fact that school attendance is compulsory. The total number of children between six and fourteen was 5,369,500. If we deduct from this total the numbers under a, b, c, d, it leaves a total of 5,163,627 children enrolled in either people's schools or elementary classes of other schools. If we add to the total the number of students in middle and high schools, namely, 203,310 and 153,602, we find the total number of youth actually enrolled in schools between kindergarten and university to be 5,530,539, or 19.51 per cent. of the population. The numbers given are the numbers of pupils enrolled. If the numbers in attendance were known we should see that the percentage of the population is considerably less. The difference between enrolment and attendance is, however, much less than in the United States. This is attributable partly to the density of population (Prussia occupies not quite three and one-half times the area of the State of Ohio; its density of population is 209 to the square mile, while that of Ohio is 82), which facilitates school attendance, and partly to the rigid enforcement of the compulsory attendance law. How many children attended the private schools, marked in the diagram as preparatory classes, can not be stated in detail; the official reports give the total number (203,310) only. There are also select private schools in Prussia, of which the official reports give no definite information; but it is reasonable to suppose that the number of their Privy councilor, Dr. K. Schneider (director of public elementary schools in Prussia), writes in answer to an inquiry from this Office concerning the number of pupils in daily attendance: "In reply to your letter of November 20, 1889, I take pleasure in saying, that though daily registers of the pupils in the schools of Prussia are kept, and the roll is read daily, we have never heretofore made statistical summaries concerning daily attendance. Generally, it may be said, the attendance is quite regular (owing to the strict enforcement of the compulsory attendance law); I believe I am not saying too much, if I state that of the 4,874,347 children enrolled in the people's schools on May 20, 1886, as many as 4,400,000 were actually in attendance." pupils would not increase the foregoing total enough to raise it to 20 per cent. of the population. Despite compulsory attendance in Prussia the number of pupils in the different school systems tapers off somewhat, as is seen on Diagram II. This is owing to natural decrease by death, and to the fact that poorly endowed children fail to be promoted; they reach the fourteenth or thirteenth year of age before having entered the highest grade of school. In rural schools attendance is enforced only between the ages six and thirteen, while in cities the limit is generally the fourteenth year. The falling off in attendance upon the higher classes of secondary schools in Germany is owing to a great extent to the methods pursued in these schools. It does not seem the object of the faculty to do the greatest good to the greatest number, but to prepare a selected few for the next higher grades and suffer the remainder to stay and go over the same ground or drop out of school. The statistics of German secondary schools illustrate Darwin's theory of the survival of the fittest. The number of children in the kindergarten can not be stated owing to the fact that nowhere in Prussia has the kindergarten become an integral part of the school system. It is almost every where supported independently of state aid. In the United States it has only at a very few places been organically connected with the common school, hence no adequate uniform reports are available even here. This Bureau has attempted to collect statistics concerning the attendance in kindergartens in this country, but they proved to be fragmentary. The space which represents the kindergarten in the first two diagrams is mere conjecture and must be regarded as such. III. OTHER ITEMS OF INTEREST CONCERNING THE PEOPLE'S SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. The official school statistics of Prussia, which are very carefully compiled, offer the following additional items of interest: The 4,874,347 pupils enrolled in people's schools are found in 34,016 schoolhouses with 75,097 class rooms. There were in 1886-87: Schools with two teachers Schools with two teachers having three classes (included in the preceding) Within fourteen years from the issue of the decree which organized the schools anew (January, 1872) a notable progress, that is to say, a better grading, has taken place. This progress, though slight, is made |